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Para comparar enteógenos, consulte la Lista de sustancias utilizadas en los rituales .
Este artículo trata sobre sustancias psicoactivas en un contexto espiritual. Para obtener información general sobre ellos, consulte Drogas psicoactivas y alucinógenos . Para la aceptación de enteógenos en las religiones, consulte Religión y drogas . Para el grupo musical, vea Entheogenic (banda) .
No confundir con Etnogénesis .

Pueblo mazateco realizando una danza ritual de Salvia en Huautla de Jiménez

Los enteógenos son sustancias psicoactivas que inducen alteraciones en la percepción , el estado de ánimo , la conciencia , la cognición o el comportamiento [1] con el propósito de generar desarrollo espiritual o de otro modo [2] en contextos sagrados . [3] [4] El estudio antropológico ha establecido que los enteógenos se utilizan para fines religiosos , mágicos , chamánicos o espirituales.propósitos en muchas partes del mundo. Los enteógenos se han utilizado tradicionalmente para complementar muchas prácticas diversas orientadas a lograr la trascendencia , incluida la adivinación , la meditación , el yoga , la privación sensorial , el ascetismo , la oración , el trance , los rituales , el canto , la imitación de sonidos , himnos como canciones de peyote , tambores y danza extática . [ cita requerida ] El psicodélicola experiencia a menudo se compara con formas no ordinarias de conciencia como las experimentadas en la meditación , [5] experiencias cercanas a la muerte , [6] y experiencias místicas . [7] La disolución del ego se describe a menudo como una característica clave de la experiencia psicodélica. [8]

Nomenclatura

Brugmansia suaveolens , una de un grupo de especies conocidas como 'trompetas de ángel'. Las plantas de Brugmansia son ricas en el compuesto químico escopolamina , un ejemplo de enteógeno. Brugmansia ha sido cultivada por tribus nativas en América del Sur por esta razón.

El enteógeno del neologismo fue acuñado en 1979 por un grupo de etnobotánicos y eruditos de la mitología ( Carl AP Ruck , Jeremy Bigwood, Danny Staples, Richard Evans Schultes , Jonathan Ott y R. Gordon Wasson ). El término se deriva a partir de dos palabras de griego antiguo , ἔνθεος ( entheos ) y γενέσθαι ( genesthai ). El adjetivo entheos se traduce al español como "lleno del dios, inspirado, poseído", y es la raíz de la palabra en inglés " entusiasmo ". Los griegos lo usaron como un término de alabanza para los poetas y otros artistas.Genesthai significa "llegar a existir ". Por lo tanto, un enteógeno es una droga que hace que uno se sienta inspirado o experimente sentimientos de inspiración, a menudo de una manera religiosa o "espiritual". [9]

El enteógeno fue acuñado como un reemplazo de los términos alucinógeno y psicodélico . El alucinógeno fue popularizado por las experiencias de Aldous Huxley con la mescalina , que se publicaron como Las puertas de la percepción en 1954. Psicodélico , en contraste, es un neologismo griego para "manifestar la mente", y fue acuñado por el psiquiatra Humphry Osmond ; Huxley fue voluntario en los experimentos que Osmond estaba realizando con mescalina.

Ruck y col. argumentó que el término alucinógeno era inapropiado debido a su relación etimológica con palabras relacionadas con el delirio y la locura . El término psicodélico también se consideró problemático, debido a la similitud del sonido con las palabras relacionadas con la psicosis y también al hecho de que se había asociado irreversiblemente con varias connotaciones de la cultura pop de la década de 1960 . En el uso moderno, enteógeno puede usarse como sinónimo de estos términos, o puede elegirse para contrastarlo con el uso recreativo de las mismas drogas. Los significados del término enteógeno fueron definidos formalmente por Ruck et al .:

En un sentido estricto, solo aquellas drogas productoras de visión que se pueda demostrar que han figurado en ritos chamánicos o religiosos serían designadas enteógenas, pero en un sentido más amplio, el término también podría aplicarse a otras drogas, tanto naturales como artificiales, que inducir alteraciones de la conciencia similares a las documentadas para la ingestión ritual de enteógenos tradicionales.

-  Ruck et al, 1979, Journal of Psychedelic Drugs [10]

Historia

Artículo principal: Historia de las drogas enteogénicas.
Ver también: Drogas enteogénicas y el registro arqueológico.
Sintético Laboratory mescalina . La mescalina fue el primer compuesto psicodélico (1887) que se extrajo y aisló de la naturaleza (del peyote). [11]
Floración San Pedro , un cactus enteogénico que se ha utilizado durante más de 3.000 años. [12] Hoy en día, la gran mayoría de la mescalina extraída proviene de cactus columnares, no de peyote vulnerable . [13]

Los enteógenos han sido utilizados por los pueblos indígenas durante miles de años. [14]

R. Gordon Wasson y Giorgio Samorini han propuesto varios ejemplos del uso cultural de enteógenos que se encuentran en el registro arqueológico. [15] [16] Las semillas de cáñamo descubiertas por arqueólogos en Pazyryk sugieren que las primeras prácticas ceremoniales de los escitas ocurrieron durante los siglos V al II a. C., lo que confirma informes históricos previos de Herodoto . [17]

La mayoría de los ejemplos modernos bien conocidos de enteógenos, como la ayahuasca , el peyote , los hongos psilocibina y las glorias de la mañana provienen de las culturas nativas de las Américas. Sin embargo, también se ha sugerido que los enteógenos desempeñaron un papel importante en la antigua cultura indoeuropea, por ejemplo al incluirlos en las preparaciones rituales del Soma , el "jugo exprimido" que es el tema del Libro 9 del Rigveda . Soma fue preparado y bebido ritualmente por sacerdotes e iniciados y provocó un himno en el Rigveda que encarna la naturaleza de un enteógeno: [ cita requerida ]

¡Espléndido por ley! declarando la Ley, hablando la verdad, veraz en tus obras, ¡Anunciando la fe, Rey Soma! ... Oh [Soma] Pavāmana (aclaración de la mente), colócame en ese mundo inmortal y sin decadencia donde la luz del cielo está puesta, y el brillo eterno brilla .... Hazme inmortal en ese reino donde la felicidad y los transportes, donde la alegría y la felicidad se combinan ...

El kykeon que precedió a la iniciación en los misterios eleusinos es otro enteógeno, que fue investigado (antes de que se acuñara la palabra) por Carl Kerényi, en Eleusis: imagen arquetípica de madre e hija. Otros enteógenos en el Antiguo Cercano Oriente y el Egeo incluyen la amapola de opio , la datura y el "loto" no identificado (probablemente el lirio azul sagrado ) comido por los Devoradores de Loto en la Odisea y Narciso .

Según Ruck, Eyan y Staples, el enteógeno chamánico familiar del que los indoeuropeos trajeron conocimiento fue Amanita muscaria . No se puede cultivar; por lo tanto, había que encontrarlo, que se adaptara a un estilo de vida nómada. Cuando llegaron al mundo del Cáucaso y el Egeo, los indoeuropeos se encontraron con el vino , el enteógeno de Dioniso , quien lo trajo consigo desde su lugar de nacimiento en la mítica Nysa , cuando regresó para reclamar su primogenitura olímpica. Los proto-griegos indoeuropeos "lo reconocieron como el enteógeno de Zeus, y sus propias tradiciones de chamanismo, el Amanita y el 'jugo exprimido' del Soma - pero mejor, ya que ya no era impredecible y salvaje, la forma en que se encontraba entre losHiperbóreos : como correspondía a su propia asimilación de modos de vida agrarios, el enteógeno era ahora cultivable ". [18] Robert Graves , en su prólogo a Los mitos griegos, plantea la hipótesis de que la ambrosía de varias tribus prehelénicas era Amanita muscaria (que, basado en la similitud morfológica de las palabras amanita, amrita y ambrosia, es totalmente plausible) y tal vez setas de psilocibina del género Panaeolus . Amanita muscaria se consideraba como alimento divino , según Ruck y Staples, no como algo para disfrutar, degustadas ligeramente o profanado. Era visto como el alimento de los dioses, suambrosía , y como mediador entre los dos reinos. Se dice que el crimen de Tántalo fue invitar a los plebeyos a compartir su ambrosía.

Fisiología

Las drogas enteógenas han sido utilizadas por los humanos desde tiempos prehistóricos, su uso comenzó a registrarse con el desarrollo de escrituras, códices y libros. En la actualidad su estudio está permitido a universidades, laboratorios o particulares con licencia para utilizar estas sustancias.

El mecanismo de acción de los enteógenos en el cuerpo y la mente humana es tan diverso como la cantidad de ingredientes activos presentes en la diversidad mundial de fármacos enteógenos utilizados por la humanidad, muchos de ellos activan receptores neurológicos como los receptores 5-HT , mientras que otros estimulan los órganos humanos. y glándulas, o promover la producción y liberación de hormonas u otras moléculas endógenas.

Muchas moléculas de enteógeno se producen y almacenan de forma natural en la glándula pituitaria del cuerpo humano, se denominan endorfinas , y se liberan durante el sexo , el orgasmo , al escuchar música o al ingerir alimentos apetitosos como chocolate y naranja, son responsables de produciendo los estados eufóricos. [19] [20] La investigación ha demostrado que la meditación realizada por personas capacitadas puede utilizarse para desencadenar la liberación de endorfinas. [20] La risa también puede estimular la producción de endorfinas y elevar el umbral del dolor . [21]

Los seres humanos y otros animales producen neuropéptidos opioides endógenos y hormonas peptídicas ; la clase de endorfinas consta de α-endorfina , β-endorfina y γ-endorfina . Los tres se unen preferentemente a los receptores opioides μ . [22] Algunas de las funciones de las endorfinas son inhibir la comunicación de las señales de dolor y también producir una sensación de euforia muy similar a la que producen otros opioides . [23] E

La producción de endorfinas también puede desencadenarse mediante un ejercicio aeróbico vigoroso . Se ha postulado que la liberación de β-endorfina contribuye al fenómeno conocido como " euforia del corredor ". [24] [25] Las endorfinas pueden contribuir al efecto positivo del ejercicio sobre la ansiedad y la depresión . [26]

Uno de los ingredientes activos más comunes presentes en muchos fármacos enteógenos es la dimetiltriptomina (DMT), que estimula la glándula pineal . DMT se une de forma no selectiva con afinidades <0,6 μM a los siguientes receptores de serotonina: 5-HT1A , 5-HT1B 5-HT1D 5-HT2A, 5-HT2B, 5-HT2C, 5-HT6 y 5-HT7. Alguna preparación como Ayahuasca que contiene DMT pero también inhibidores de la monoaminooxidasa(IMAO) con el propósito de permitir que el DMT sea activo por vía oral, los IMAO también son antidepresivos muy eficaces, así como agentes terapéuticos eficaces para el trastorno de pánico y la fobia social. En 2019, los experimentos demostraron que el cerebro de la rata es capaz de sintetizar y liberar DMT. Estos resultados plantean la posibilidad de que este fenómeno pueda ocurrir de manera similar en el cerebro humano.

La psilocibina , el ingrediente activo de los hongos psilocibina , es un agonista de varios receptores de serotonina e indirectamente aumenta la concentración del neurotransmisor dopamina en los ganglios basales .

Usos y finalidad

Ver también: chamán de plástico
2C-B es un entactógeno de uso común en lugares públicos, como fiestas rave.

Los enteógenos han sido utilizados por personas para perseguir objetivos espirituales como la adivinación , la muerte del ego , la ausencia de ego , la curación por la fe , la terapia psicodélica y la formación espiritual . Los enteógenos se han utilizado de diversas formas, por ejemplo, como parte de rituales religiosos establecidos, como ayudas para el desarrollo espiritual personal ("maestros de plantas"), [27] [28] como drogas recreativas y para uso médico y terapéutico.

También hay casos en los que a las personas se les han administrado enteógenos sin su conocimiento o consentimiento (por ejemplo, turistas en ayahuasca), [29] así como intentos de usar tales drogas en otros contextos, como maldiciones . [ cita requerida ] En algunas áreas, hay supuestos hechiceros malévolos que se hacen pasar por verdaderos chamanes y que incitan a los turistas a beber ayahuasca en su presencia. Los chamanes creen que uno de los propósitos de esto es robar la energía, el poder o ambos, del cual creen que cada persona tiene una reserva limitada. [30]

Tipos de enteógenos

Artículo principal: Lista de sustancias utilizadas en rituales.

Los enteógenos naturales como la psilocibina y el DMT (en la preparación de la ayahuasca) fueron, en su mayor parte, descubiertos y utilizados por culturas más antiguas, como parte de su vida espiritual y religiosa, como plantas y agentes respetados, o en algunos casos. venerado durante generaciones y puede ser una tradición anterior a todas las religiones modernas como una especie de rito proto-religioso.

Uno de los enteógenos más utilizados es el cannabis . El uso enteogénico de cannabis se ha documentado en regiones como China , Europa e India , en algunos casos durante miles de años. También ha aparecido como parte de religiones y culturas como el movimiento rastafari , los sadhus del hinduismo , los escitas , el islam sufí y otros.

Los enteógenos utilizados en el mundo contemporáneo incluyen biota como el peyote ( Native American Church [31] ), extractos como ayahuasca ( Santo Daime , [32] União do Vegetal [33] ), la droga semisintética LSD ( Neo-American Church ), y drogas sintéticas como DPT ( Templo de la verdadera luz interior ) y 2C-B ( Sangoma [34] ).

Por religión

Ver también: Formas regionales de chamanismo y Religión y drogas.

Judaísmo y cristianismo

Muchas [ palabras de comadreja ] denominaciones cristianas desaprueban el uso de la mayoría de las drogas ilícitas. [ cita requerida ] Sin embargo, estudiosos como David Hillman sugieren que una variedad de uso de drogas, recreativas y de otro tipo, se encuentra en la historia temprana de la Iglesia. [35]

La antropóloga polaca Sara Benetowa (también conocida como Sula Benet ) argumentó que el cannabis se había usado en el judaísmo primitivo, afirmando en 1967 que la planta kaneh bosem (hebreo: קְנֵה-בֹשֶׂם), mencionada cinco veces en la Biblia hebrea, y utilizada en el sagrado el aceite de la unción del Libro del Éxodo - era de hecho cannabis. [36] Los léxicos del hebreo y los diccionarios de plantas de la Biblia como los de Michael Zohary (1985), Hans Arne Jensen (2004) y James A. Duke (2010) y otros identifican la planta en cuestión como Acorus calamus o Cymbopogon. citratus . [37]Kneh-bossem aparece como incienso en el Antiguo Testamento .

Por lo general, los académicos que se especializan en arqueología y paleobotánica del antiguo Israel y los que se especializan en la lexicografía de la Biblia hebrea sostienen que el cannabis no está documentado ni mencionado en el judaísmo primitivo. En contra de esto, algunos escritores populares han argumentado que hay evidencia del uso religioso del cannabis en la Biblia hebrea, [38] [39] aunque esta hipótesis y algunos de los estudios de casos específicos (por ejemplo, John Allegro en relación con Qumran , 1970) han ha sido "ampliamente descartado como erróneo [;] otros continúan". [40]

Según The Living Torah , el cannabis puede haber sido uno de los ingredientes del aceite de la santa unción mencionado en varios textos sagrados hebreos . [41] La hierba de interés se conoce más comúnmente como kaneh-bosm (hebreo: קְנֵה-בֹשֶׂם). Esto se menciona varias veces en el Antiguo Testamento como material de trueque, incienso y un ingrediente del aceite de la santa unción que usaba el sumo sacerdote del templo. Aunque la investigación de Chris Bennett en esta área se centra en el cannabis, también menciona evidencia que sugiere el uso de plantas visionarias adicionales como el beleño. [42]

La Septuaginta traduce kaneh-bosm como cálamo , y esta traducción se ha propagado sin cambios a la mayoría de las traducciones posteriores del Antiguo Testamento. Sin embargo, la antropóloga polaca Sula Benet publicó argumentos etimológicos de que la palabra aramea para cáñamo puede leerse como kannabos y parece ser un afín a la palabra moderna 'cannabis', [43] con la raíz kan que significa caña o cáñamo y bosm que significa fragante. Tanto el cannabis como el cálamo son plantas fragantes parecidas a las cañas que contienen compuestos psicotrópicos .

En su investigación, el profesor Dan Merkur señala una evidencia significativa de una conciencia dentro de la tradición mística judía que reconoce al maná como un enteógeno, lo que corrobora con textos rabínicos las teorías avanzadas por las interpretaciones bíblicas superficiales de Terence McKenna , R. Gordon Wasson y otros etnomicólogos .

La imagen histórica retratada por la revista Entheos es de un uso bastante extendido de plantas visionarias en el cristianismo primitivo y la cultura circundante, con una reducción gradual del uso de enteógenos en el cristianismo. [44] El libro de R. Gordon Wasson Soma imprime una carta del historiador del arte Erwin Panofsky afirmando que los estudiosos del arte conocen muchos "árboles de hongos" en el arte cristiano. [45]

La cuestión del alcance del uso visionario de plantas a lo largo de la historia de la práctica cristiana apenas ha sido considerada por académicos o estudiosos independientes. La cuestión de si se utilizaron plantas visionarias en el cristianismo pre- teodosiano es distinta de la evidencia que indica hasta qué punto se utilizaron u olvidaron las plantas visionarias en el cristianismo posterior, incluidos los grupos herejes o cuasi-cristianos, [46] y la cuestión de otros grupos como élites o laicos dentro de la práctica católica ortodoxa. [47]

Budismo

El quinto de la Pancasila , el código ético de las tradiciones budistas Theravada y Mahayana , establece que los adherentes deben: "abstenerse de bebidas fermentadas y destiladas que causen negligencia". [48] El Canon Pali , la escritura del budismo Theravada, describe el abstenerse del alcohol como algo esencial para la conducta moral porque la intoxicación causa una pérdida de la atención plena.. Aunque el Quinto Precepto solo nombra un vino y una sidra específicos, tradicionalmente se ha interpretado que se refiere a todas las bebidas alcohólicas. Técnicamente, esta prohibición no incluye beber de forma leve a moderada, solo beber hasta el punto de la embriaguez. Tampoco incluye otras drogas que alteran la mente, pero la tradición budista incluye todos los intoxicantes. El Canon Pali no sugiere que el alcohol sea malo, pero cree que el descuido producido por la intoxicación crea mal karma. Por lo tanto, algunos podrían considerar que cualquier droga (más allá del té o el café suave) que afecte la atención plena está cubierta por esta prohibición. [ cita requerida ]

Se ha sugerido que el hongo Amanita muscaria fue utilizado por la tradición budista tántrica mahasiddha del siglo VIII al XII. [49]

En Occidente, algunos maestros budistas modernos han escrito sobre la utilidad de los psicodélicos. La revista budista Tricycle dedicó toda su edición de otoño de 1996 a este número. [50] Algunos maestros como Jack Kornfield han sugerido la posibilidad de que los psicodélicos puedan complementar la práctica budista, traer curación y ayudar a las personas a comprender su conexión con todo lo que pueda conducir a la compasión. [51] [ fuente autoeditada? ] Kornfield advierte, sin embargo, que la adicción aún puede ser un obstáculo. Otros maestros, como Michelle McDonald-Smith, expresaron puntos de vista que consideraban que los enteógenos no eran propicios para la práctica budista ("No los veo desarrollando nada"). [52]

Nuevos movimientos religiosos

Peyotismo

A Native American peyote drummer (c. 1927)

The Native American Church (NAC) is also known as Peyotism and Peyote Religion. Peyotism is a Native American religion characterized by mixed traditional as well as Protestant beliefs and by sacramental use of the entheogen peyote.

The Peyote Way Church of God believe that "Peyote is a holy sacrament, when taken according to our sacramental procedure and combined with a holistic lifestyle".[53]

Santo Daime

Santo Daime is a syncretic religion founded in the 1930s in the Brazilian Amazonian state of Acre by Raimundo Irineu Serra,[54] known as Mestre Irineu. Santo Daime incorporates elements of several religious or spiritual traditions including Folk Catholicism, Kardecist Spiritism, African animism and indigenous South American shamanism, including vegetalismo.

Ceremonies – trabalhos (Brazilian Portuguese for "works") – are typically several hours long and are undertaken sitting in silent "concentration", or sung collectively, dancing according to simple steps in geometrical formation. Ayahuasca, referred to as Daime within the practice, which contains several psychoactive compounds, is drunk as part of the ceremony. The drinking of Daime can induce a strong emetic effect which is embraced as both emotional and physical purging.

Santo Daime churches promote a wholesome lifestyle in conformity with Irineu's motto of "harmony, love, truth and justice", as well as other key doctrinal values such as strength, humility, fraternity and purity of heart. The practice became a worldwide movement in the 1990s.[tone][citations needed]

União do Vegetal

União do Vegetal (UDV) is a religious society founded on July 22, 1961 by José Gabriel da Costa, known as Mestre Gabriel. The translation of União do Vegetal is Union of the Plants referring to the sacrament of the UDV, Hoasca tea (also known as ayahuasca). This beverage is made by boiling two plants, Mariri (Banisteriopsis caapi) and Chacrona (Psychotria viridis), both of which are native to the Amazon rainforest.

In its sessions, UDV members drink Hoasca Tea for the effect of mental concentration. In Brazil, the use of Hoasca in religious rituals was regulated by the Brazilian Federal Government's National Drug Policy Council on January 25, 2010. The policy established legal norms for the religious institutions that responsibly use this tea. The Supreme Court of the United States unanimously affirmed the UDV's right to use Hoasca tea in its religious sessions in the United States, in a decision published on February 21, 2006.

Others

Entheogens also play an important role in contemporary religious movements such as the Rastafari movement and the Church of the Universe.

By region

Africa

The best-known entheogen-using culture of Africa is the Bwitists, who used a preparation of the root bark of Tabernanthe iboga.[55] Although the ancient Egyptians may have been using the sacred blue lily plant in some of their religious rituals or just symbolically, it has been suggested that Egyptian religion once revolved around the ritualistic ingestion of the far more psychoactive Psilocybe cubensis mushroom, and that the Egyptian White Crown, Triple Crown, and Atef Crown were evidently designed to represent pin-stages of this mushroom.[56] There is also evidence for the use of psilocybin mushrooms in Ivory Coast.[57] Numerous other plants used in shamanic ritual in Africa, such as Silene capensis sacred to the Xhosa, are yet to be investigated by western science. A recent revitalization has occurred in the study of southern African psychoactives and entheogens (Mitchell and Hudson 2004; Sobiecki 2002, 2008, 2012).[58]

Among the amaXhosa, the artificial drug 2C-B is used as entheogen by traditional healers or amagqirha over their traditional plants; they refer to the chemical as Ubulawu Nomathotholo, which roughly translates to "Medicine of the Singing Ancestors".[59][60][61]

Americas

See also: Aztec use of entheogens and Entheogenics and the Maya
Salvia divinorum (Herba de Maria)

Entheogens have played a pivotal role in the spiritual practices of most American cultures for millennia. The first American entheogen to be subject to scientific analysis was the peyote cactus (Lophophora williamsii). One of the founders of modern ethno-botany, Richard Evans Schultes of Harvard University documented the ritual use of peyote cactus among the Kiowa, who live in what became Oklahoma. While it was used traditionally by many cultures of what is now Mexico, in the 19th century its use spread throughout North America, replacing the toxic mescal bean (Calia secundiflora). Other well-known entheogens used by Mexican cultures include the alcoholic Aztec sacrament, pulque, ritual tobacco (known as 'picietl' to the Aztecs, and 'sikar' to the Maya (from where the word 'cigar' derives)), psilocybin mushrooms, morning glories (Ipomoea tricolor and Turbina corymbosa), and Salvia divinorum.

Datura wrightii is sacred to some Native Americans and has been used in ceremonies and rites of passage by Chumash, Tongva, and others. Among the Chumash, when a boy was 8 years old, his mother would give him a preparation of momoy to drink. This supposed spiritual challenge should help the boy develop the spiritual wellbeing that is required to become a man. Not all of the boys undergoing this ritual survived.[62] Momoy was also used to enhance spiritual wellbeing among adults. For instance, during a frightening situation, such as when seeing a coyote walk like a man, a leaf of momoy was sucked to help keep the soul in the body.

Asia

The indigenous peoples of Siberia (from whom the term shaman was borrowed) have used Amanita muscaria as an entheogen.

In Hinduism, Datura stramonium and cannabis have been used in religious ceremonies, although the religious use of datura is not very common, as the primary alkaloids are strong deliriants, which causes serious intoxication with unpredictable effects.

Also, the ancient drink Soma, mentioned often in the Vedas, appears to be consistent with the effects of an entheogen. In his 1967 book, Wasson argues that Soma was Amanita muscaria. The active ingredient of Soma is presumed by some to be ephedrine, an alkaloid with stimulant properties derived from the soma plant, identified as Ephedra pachyclada. However, there are also arguments to suggest that Soma could have also been Syrian rue, cannabis, Atropa belladonna, or some combination of any of the above plants.[citation needed]

Europe

Fermented honey, known in Northern Europe as mead, was an early entheogen in Aegean civilization, predating the introduction of wine, which was the more familiar entheogen of the reborn Dionysus and the maenads. Its religious uses in the Aegean world are intertwined with the mythology of the bee.

Dacians were known to use cannabis in their religious and important life ceremonies, proven by discoveries of large clay pots with burnt cannabis seeds in ancient tombs and religious shrines. Also, local oral folklore and myths tell of ancient priests that dreamed with gods and walked in the smoke. Their names, as transmitted by Herodotus, were "kap-no-batai" which in Dacian was supposed to mean "the ones that walk in the clouds".

The growth of Roman Christianity also saw the end of the two-thousand-year-old tradition of the Eleusinian Mysteries, the initiation ceremony for the cult of Demeter and Persephone involving the use of a drug known as kykeon. The term 'ambrosia' is used in Greek mythology in a way that is remarkably similar to the Soma of the Hindus as well.

A theory that naturally-occurring gases like ethylene used by inhalation may have played a role in divinatory ceremonies at Delphi in Classical Greece received popular press attention in the early 2000s, yet has not been conclusively proven.[63]

Mushroom consumption is part of the culture of Europeans in general, with particular importance to Slavic and Baltic peoples. Some academics argue that the use of psilocybin- and/or muscimol-containing mushrooms was an integral part of the ancient culture of the Rus' people.[64]

Middle East

It has been suggested that the ritual use of small amounts of Syrian rue[by whom?] is an artifact of its ancient use in higher doses as an entheogen (possibly in conjunction with DMT-containing acacia).[citation needed]

John Marco Allegro argued that early Jewish and Christian cultic practice was based on the use of Amanita muscaria, which was later forgotten by its adherents,[65] but this view has been widely disputed.[66]

Assassins legends

Main article: Hashshashins § Legends and folklore
See also: History of Nizari Ismailism

The legends of the Assassins had much to do with the training and instruction of Nizari fida'is, famed for their public missions during which they often gave their lives to eliminate adversaries.

The tales of the fida'is' training collected from anti-Ismaili historians and orientalists writers were confounded and compiled in Marco Polo's account, in which he described a "secret garden of paradise".[citation needed] After being drugged, the Ismaili devotees were said to be taken to a paradise-like garden filled with attractive young maidens and beautiful plants in which these fida'is would awaken. Here, they were told by an old man that they were witnessing their place in Paradise and that should they wish to return to this garden permanently, they must serve the Nizari cause.[67] So went the tale of the "Old Man in the Mountain", assembled by Marco Polo and accepted by Joseph von Hammer-Purgstall (1774–1856), a prominent orientalist writer responsible for much of the spread of this legend. Until the 1930s, von Hammer's retelling of the Assassin legends served as the standard account of the Nizaris across Europe.[citation needed]

Oceania

In general, indigenous Australians are thought not to have used entheogens, although there is a strong barrier of secrecy surrounding Aboriginal shamanism, which has likely limited what has been told to outsiders. A plant that the Australian Aboriginals used to ingest is called Pitcheri, which is said to have a similar effect to that of coca. Pitcheri was made from the bark of the shrub Duboisia myoporoides. This plant is now grown commercially and is processed to manufacture an eye medication.

There are no known uses of entheogens by the Māori of New Zealand aside from a variant species of kava,[68] although some modern scholars have claimed that there may be evidence of psilocybin mushroom use.[69] Natives of Papua New Guinea are known to use several species of entheogenic mushrooms (Psilocybe spp, Boletus manicus).[70]

Kava or kava kava (Piper Methysticum) has been cultivated for at least 3,000 years by a number of Pacific island-dwelling peoples. Historically, most Polynesian, many Melanesian, and some Micronesian cultures have ingested the psychoactive pulverized root, typically taking it mixed with water. In these traditions, taking kava is believed to facilitate contact with the spirits of the dead, especially relatives and ancestors.[71]

Research

Mandala-like round window above the altar at Boston University's Marsh Chapel, site of Marsh Chapel Experiment

Notable early testing of the entheogenic experience includes the Marsh Chapel Experiment, conducted by physician and theology doctoral candidate Walter Pahnke under the supervision of psychologist Timothy Leary and the Harvard Psilocybin Project. In this double-blind experiment, volunteer graduate school divinity students from the Boston area almost all claimed to have had profound religious experiences subsequent to the ingestion of pure psilocybin.[citation needed]

Beginning in 2006, experiments have been conducted at Johns Hopkins University, showing that under controlled conditions psilocybin causes mystical experiences in most participants and that they rank the personal and spiritual meaningfulness of the experiences very highly.[72][73]

Except in Mexico, research with psychedelics is limited due to ongoing widespread drug prohibition. The amount of peer-reviewed research on psychedelics has accordingly been limited due to the difficulty of getting approval from institutional review boards.[74] Furthermore, scientific studies on entheogens present some significant challenges to investigators, including philosophical questions relating to ontology, epistemology and objectivity.[75]

Legal status

United Nations

Article 32 of the Convention on Psychotropic Substances allows nations to exempt certain traditional uses of substances from prohibition:

A State on whose territory there are plants growing wild which contain psychotropic substances from among those in Schedule I and which are traditionally used by certain small, clearly determined groups in magical or religious rites, may, at the time of signature, ratification or accession, make reservations concerning these plants, in respect of the provisions of article 7, except for the provisions relating to international trade.

However, this exemption would apply only if the plant were ever explicitly added to the Schedules of the Psychotropic Convention. Currently the Convention applies only to chemicals. The Commentary on the Convention on Psychotropic Substances notes, however, that the plants containing it are not subject to international control:[76]

The cultivation of plants from which psychotropic substances are obtained is not controlled by the Vienna Convention .... Neither the crown (fruit, mescal button) of the Peyote cactus nor the roots of the plant Mimosa hostilis nor Psilocybe mushrooms themselves are included in Schedule 1, but only their respective principals, mescaline, DMT, and psilocin.

No plants (natural materials) containing DMT are at present controlled under the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances. Consequently, preparations (e.g. decoctions) made of these plants, including ayahuasca are not under international control and, therefore, not subject to any of the articles of the 1971 Convention.

— International Narcotics Control Board (INCB), United Nations[77]

By country

Some countries have legislation that allows for traditional entheogen use.[citation needed]

Australia

Main article: Dimethyltryptamine § Australia

Between 2011 and 2012, the Australian Federal Government was considering changes to the Australian Criminal Code that would classify any plants containing any amount of DMT as "controlled plants".[78] DMT itself was already controlled under current laws. The proposed changes included other similar blanket bans for other substances, such as a ban on any and all plants containing mescaline or ephedrine. The proposal was not pursued after political embarrassment on realisation that this would make the official Floral Emblem of Australia, Acacia pycnantha (golden wattle), illegal. The Therapeutic Goods Administration and federal authority had considered a motion to ban the same, but this was withdrawn in May 2012 (as DMT may still hold potential entheogenic value to native or religious peoples).[79]

United States

In 1963 in Sherbert v. Verner the Supreme Court established the Sherbert Test, which consists of four criteria that are used to determine if an individual's right to religious free exercise has been violated by the government. The test is as follows:

For the individual, the court must determine

  • whether the person has a claim involving a sincere religious belief, and
  • whether the government action is a substantial burden on the person's ability to act on that belief.

If these two elements are established, then the government must prove

  • that it is acting in furtherance of a "compelling state interest", and
  • that it has pursued that interest in the manner least restrictive, or least burdensome, to religion.

This test was eventually all-but-eliminated in Employment Division v. Smith 494 U.S. 872 (1990) which held that a "neutral law of general applicability" was not subject to the test. Congress resurrected it for the purposes of federal law in the federal Religious Freedom Restoration Act (RFRA) of 1993.

In City of Boerne v. Flores, 521 U.S. 507 (1997) RFRA was held to trespass on state sovereignty, and application of the RFRA was essentially limited to federal law enforcement. In Gonzales v. O Centro Espírita Beneficente União do Vegetal, 546 U.S. 418 (2006), a case involving only federal law, RFRA was held to permit a church's use of a DMT-containing tea for religious ceremonies.

Some states have enacted State Religious Freedom Restoration Acts intended to mirror the federal RFRA's protections.

Religious discrimination

Peyote is listed by the United States DEA as a Schedule I controlled substance. However, practitioners of the Peyote Way Church of God, a Native American religion, perceive the regulations regarding the use of peyote as discriminating, leading to religious discrimination issues regarding about the U.S. policy towards drugs. As the result of Peyote Way Church of God, Inc. v. Thornburgh the American Indian Religious Freedom Act of 1978 was passed. This federal statute allow the "Traditional Indian religious use of the peyote sacrament", exempting only use by Native American persons.

In literature

Many works of literature have described entheogen use; some of those are:

  • The drug melange (spice) in Frank Herbert's Dune universe acts as both an entheogen (in large enough quantities) and an addictive geriatric medicine. Control of the supply of melange was crucial to the Empire, as it was necessary for, among other things, faster-than-light (folding space) navigation.[citation needed]
  • Consumption of the imaginary mushroom anochi [enoki] as the entheogen underlying the creation of Christianity is the premise of Philip K. Dick's last novel, The Transmigration of Timothy Archer, a theme that seems to be inspired by John Allegro's book.[citation needed]
  • Aldous Huxley's final novel, Island (1962), depicted a fictional psychoactive mushroom – termed "moksha medicine" – used by the people of Pala in rites of passage, such as the transition to adulthood and at the end of life.[80][81]
  • Bruce Sterling's Holy Fire novel refers to the religion in the future as a result of entheogens, used freely by the population.[82]
  • In Stephen King's The Dark Tower: The Gunslinger, Book 1 of The Dark Tower series, the main character receives guidance after taking mescaline.[citation needed]
  • The Alastair Reynolds novel Absolution Gap features a moon under the control of a religious government that uses neurological viruses to induce religious faith.[citation needed]
  • A critical examination of the ethical and societal implications and relevance of "entheogenic" experiences can be found in Daniel Waterman and Casey William Hardison's book Entheogens, Society & Law: Towards a Politics of Consciousness, Autonomy and Responsibility (Melrose, Oxford 2013). This book includes a controversial[according to whom?] analysis of the term entheogen arguing that Wasson et al. were mystifying the effects of the plants and traditions to which it refers.[page needed]

See also

  • List of Acacia species known to contain psychoactive alkaloids
  • List of plants used for smoking
  • List of psychoactive plants
  • List of psychoactive plants, fungi, and animals
  • List of substances used in rituals
  • N,N-Dimethyltryptamine
  • Psilocybin mushrooms
  • Psychedelic therapy
  • Psychoactive Amanita mushrooms
  • Psychoactive cacti
  • Psychology of religion
  • Scholarly approaches to mysticism

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Further reading

  • Harner, Michael, The Way of the Shaman: A Guide to Power and Healing, Harper & Row Publishers, NY 1980
  • Rätsch, Christian; "The Psychoactive Plants, Ethnopharmacology and Its Applications"; Park Street Press; Rochester Vermont; 1998/2005; ISBN 978-0-89281-978-2
  • Pegg, Carole (2001). Mongolian Music, Dance, & Oral Narrative: Performing Diverse Identities. U of Washington P. ISBN 9780295981123. Retrieved 13 August 2012.
  • Roberts, Thomas B. (editor) (2001). Psychoactive Sacramentals: Essays on Entheogens and Religion San Francisco: Council on Spiritual Practices.
  • Roberts, Thomas B. (2006) "Chemical Input, Religious Output—Entheogens" Chapter 10 in Where God and Science Meet: Vol. 3: The Psychology of Religious Experience Westport, CT: Praeger/Greenwood.
  • Roberts, Thomas, and Hruby, Paula J. (1995–2003). Religion and Psychoactive Sacraments: An Entheogen Chrestomathy https://web.archive.org/web/20071111053855/http://csp.org/chrestomathy/ [Online archive]
  • Shimamura, Ippei (2004). "Yellow Shamans (Mongolia)". In Walter, Mariko Namba; Neumann Fridman, Eva Jane (eds.). Shamanism: An Encyclopedia of World Beliefs, Practices, and Culture. 1. ABC-CLIO. pp. 649–651. ISBN 9781576076453. Archived from the original on 15 July 2014.
  • Tupper, Kenneth W. (2014). "Entheogenic Education: Psychedelics as Tools of Wonder and Awe" (PDF). MAPS Bulletin. 24 (1): 14–19.
  • Tupper, Kenneth W. (2002). "Entheogens and Existential Intelligence: The Use of Plant Teachers as Cognitive Tools" (PDF). Canadian Journal of Education. 27 (4): 499–516. doi:10.2307/1602247. JSTOR 1602247. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 September 2015. Retrieved 2 February 2015.
  • Tupper, Kenneth W. (2003). "Entheogens & Education: Exploring the Potential of Psychoactives as Educational Tools" (PDF). Journal of Drug Education and Awareness. 1 (2): 145–161. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 October 2007.
  • Stafford, Peter. (2003). Psychedelics. Ronin Publishing, Oakland, California. ISBN 0-914171-18-6.
  • Carl Ruck and Danny Staples, The World of Classical Myth 1994. Introductory excerpts
  • Huston Smith, Cleansing the Doors of Perception: The Religious Significance of Entheogenic Plants and Chemicals, 2000, Tarcher/Putnam, ISBN 1-58542-034-4
  • Daniel Pinchbeck,"Ten Years of Therapy in One Night", The Guardian UK (2003), describes Daniel's second journey with Iboga facilitated by Dr. Martin Polanco at the Ibogaine Association clinic in Rosarito, Mexico.
  • Giorgio Samorini 1995 "Traditional use of psychoactive mushrooms in Ivory Coast?" in Eleusis 1 22-27 (no current url)
  • M. Bock 2000 "Māori kava (Macropiper excelsum)" in Eleusis - Journal of Psychoactive Plants & Compounds n.s. vol 4 (no current url)
  • Plants of the Gods: Their Sacred, Healing and Hallucinogenic Powers by Richard Evans Schultes, Albert Hofmann, Christian Ratsch - ISBN 0-89281-979-0
  • John J. McGraw, Brain & Belief: An Exploration of the Human Soul, 2004, AEGIS PRESS, ISBN 0-9747645-0-7
  • J.R. Hale, J.Z. de Boer, J.P. Chanton and H.A. Spiller (2003) Questioning the Delphic Oracle, 2003, Scientific American, vol 289, no 2, 67-73.
  • The Sacred Plants of our Ancestors by Christian Rätsch, published in TYR: Myth—Culture—Tradition Vol. 2, 2003–2004 - ISBN 0-9720292-1-4
  • Yadhu N. Singh, editor, Kava: From Ethnology to Pharmacology, 2004, Taylor & Francis, ISBN 0-415-32327-4

External links

  • Media related to Entheogens at Wikimedia Commons
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