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En el contexto de la nutrición, un mineral es un elemento químico requerido como nutriente esencial por los organismos para realizar las funciones necesarias para la vida. [1] [2] [3] Sin embargo, los cuatro elementos estructurales principales del cuerpo humano por peso ( oxígeno , hidrógeno , carbono y nitrógeno), generalmente no se incluyen en las listas de los principales nutrientes minerales (el nitrógeno se considera un "mineral" para las plantas, ya que a menudo se incluye en los fertilizantes). Estos cuatro elementos componen aproximadamente el 96% del peso del cuerpo humano, y los minerales principales (macrominerales) y los minerales menores (también llamados oligoelementos) componen el resto.

Los minerales nutritivos, al ser elementos, no pueden ser sintetizados bioquímicamente por organismos vivos. [4] Las plantas obtienen minerales del suelo . [4] La mayoría de los minerales en la dieta humana provienen de comer plantas y animales o del agua potable. [4] Como grupo, los minerales son uno de los cuatro grupos de nutrientes esenciales, los otros de los cuales son vitaminas , ácidos grasos esenciales y aminoácidos esenciales . [5] Los cinco minerales principales del cuerpo humano son calcio , fósforo , potasio , sodio ymagnesio . [2] Todos los elementos restantes del cuerpo humano se denominan "oligoelementos". Los oligoelementos que tienen una función bioquímica específica en el cuerpo humano son azufre , hierro , cloro , cobalto , cobre , zinc , manganeso , molibdeno , yodo y selenio . [6]

La mayoría de los elementos químicos que ingieren los organismos se encuentran en forma de compuestos simples. Las plantas absorben los elementos disueltos en el suelo, que posteriormente son ingeridos por los herbívoros y omnívoros que los comen, y los elementos ascienden en la cadena alimentaria . Los organismos más grandes también pueden consumir suelo ( geofagia ) o utilizar recursos minerales, como los lamidos de sal , para obtener minerales limitados que no están disponibles a través de otras fuentes dietéticas.

Las bacterias y los hongos juegan un papel esencial en la meteorización de los elementos primarios que resulta en la liberación de nutrientes para su propia nutrición y para la nutrición de otras especies en la cadena alimentaria ecológica . Un elemento, el cobalto , está disponible para su uso por parte de los animales solo después de haber sido procesado en moléculas complejas (por ejemplo, vitamina B 12 ) por las bacterias. Los animales y microorganismos utilizan minerales para el proceso de mineralización de estructuras, llamado biomineralización , que se utilizan para construir huesos, conchas marinas , cáscaras de huevo , [7] exoesqueletos y cáscaras de moluscos . [8] [cita requerida ]

Elementos químicos esenciales para los seres humanos [ editar ]

Artículo principal: Composición del cuerpo humano.

Se sabe que se requieren al menos veinte elementos químicos para sustentar los procesos bioquímicos humanos al desempeñar funciones estructurales y funcionales, así como electrolitos . [1] [9]

El oxígeno, el hidrógeno, el carbono y el nitrógeno son los elementos más abundantes en el cuerpo en peso y constituyen aproximadamente el 96% del peso de un cuerpo humano. El calcio constituye de 920 a 1200 gramos del peso corporal de un adulto, y el 99% está contenido en huesos y dientes. Esto es aproximadamente el 1,5% del peso corporal. [2] El fósforo se encuentra en cantidades de aproximadamente 2/3 del calcio y constituye aproximadamente el 1% del peso corporal de una persona. [10] Los otros minerales principales (potasio, sodio, cloro, azufre y magnesio) constituyen solo alrededor del 0,85% del peso del cuerpo. Juntos, estos once elementos químicos (H, C, N, O, Ca, P, K, Na, Cl, S, Mg) constituyen el 99,85% del cuerpo. Los ~ 18 minerales ultratrazas restantes comprenden solo el 0,15% del cuerpo, o alrededor de cien gramos en total para una persona promedio. Las fracciones totales en este párrafo sonWP: Cantidades de CALC basadas en la suma de porcentajes del artículo sobre la composición química del cuerpo humano

Existen diferentes opiniones sobre la naturaleza esencial de varios elementos ultratraza en humanos (y otros mamíferos), incluso basados ​​en los mismos datos. Por ejemplo, no existe un consenso científico sobre si el cromo es un oligoelemento esencial en los seres humanos. Estados Unidos y Japón designan al cromo como un nutriente esencial, [11] [12] pero la Autoridad Europea de Seguridad Alimentaria (EFSA), en representación de la Unión Europea, revisó la pregunta en 2014 y no está de acuerdo. [13]

La mayoría de los nutrientes minerales conocidos y sugeridos son de peso atómico relativamente bajo y razonablemente comunes en la tierra, o para el sodio y el yodo, en el océano:

Elementos nutricionales en la tabla periódica [14]
H Él
LiSer BCnorteOFNordeste
N / AMg AlabamaSiPAGSClArkansas
KCalifornia Carolina del SurTiVCrMinnesotaFeCoNiCuZnGeorgiaGeComoSeBrKr
RbSr YZrNótese bienMesTcRuRhPdAgCDEnSnSbTeIXe
CsLicenciado en Letras*LuHfEjército de reservaWReOsIrPtAuHgTlPbBiCorreosARn
P.Real academia de bellas artes**LrRfDbSgBhHsMonteDsRgCnNueva HampshireFloridaMcLvTsOg
 
 *LaCePrDakota del NortePmSmUEDi-sTuberculosisDyHoErTmYb
 **C.AThPensilvaniaUNotario públicoPuSoyCmBkCfEsFmMarylandNo

Leyenda:


Funciones en los procesos biológicos [ editar ]

Elemento dietéticoRDA / AI Hombre / Mujer (EE. UU.) [Mg] [16]UL (EE. UU. Y UE) [mg] [16] [17]Categoría
Fuentes dietéticas de alta densidad de nutrientes		Término por deficienciaPlazo por exceso
Potasio04700.0004700NE ; nordesteUn electrolito sistémico y es esencial en la corregulación de ATP con sodio.Camote, tomate, papa, frijoles, lentejas, productos lácteos, mariscos, plátano, ciruela, zanahoria, naranja [18]hipopotasemiahiperpotasemia
Cloro02300.00023003600; nordesteNecesario para la producción de ácido clorhídrico en el estómago y en las funciones de bombeo celular.La sal de mesa (cloruro de sodio) es la principal fuente dietética.hipocloremiahipercloremia
Sodio01500.00015002300; nordesteUn electrolito sistémico y es esencial en la corregulación de ATP con potasio.Sal de mesa (cloruro de sodio, la principal fuente), vegetales marinos , leche y espinacas .hiponatremiahipernatremia
Calcio10002500; 2500Necesario para la salud de los músculos, el corazón y el sistema digestivo, forma los huesos, apoya la síntesis y la función de las células sanguíneasProductos lácteos , huevos, conservas de pescado con espinas (salmón, sardinas), verduras de hoja verde , frutos secos , semillas , tofu, tomillo, orégano, eneldo, canela. [19]hipocalcemiahipercalcemia
Fósforo00700.0007004000; 4000Un componente de los huesos (ver apatita ), las células, en el procesamiento de energía, en el ADN y ATP (como fosfato) y muchas otras funciones.Carnes rojas, lácteos, pescado , aves, pan, arroz, avena. [20] [21] En contextos biológicos, generalmente se ve como fosfato [22]hipofosfatemiahiperfosfatemia
Magnesio00420.000420/320350; 250Requerido para procesar ATP y para huesosEspinacas, legumbres , frutos secos, semillas, cereales integrales, mantequilla de cacahuete, aguacate [23]hipomagnesemia ,
deficiencia de magnesio		hipermagnesemia
Hierro00018.00018/845; nordesteRequerido para muchas proteínas y enzimas, especialmente la hemoglobina para prevenir la anemia.Carne, mariscos, nueces, frijoles, chocolate amargo [24]deficiencia de hierrotrastorno por sobrecarga de hierro
Zinc00011.0008/1140; 25Requerido para varias clases de enzimas como metaloproteinasas de matriz , alcohol deshidrogenasa de hígado , anhidrasa carbónica y proteínas con dedos de zinc.Oysters*, red meat, poultry, nuts, whole grains, dairy products[25]zinc deficiencyzinc toxicity
Manganese00002.3002.3/1.811; NERequired co-factor for superoxide dismutaseGrains, legumes, seeds, nuts, leafy vegetables, tea, coffee[26]manganese deficiencymanganism
Copper00000.900.910; 5Required co-factor for cytochrome c oxidaseLiver, seafood, oysters, nuts, seeds; some: whole grains, legumes[26]copper deficiencycopper toxicity
Iodine00000.1500.1501.1; 0.6Required for the synthesis of thyroid hormonesSeaweed (kelp or kombu)*, grains, eggs, iodized salt[27]iodine deficiency / goiteriodism Hyperthyroidism[28]
Chromium00000.0350.035/0.25NE; NEInvolved in glucose and lipid metabolism, although its mechanisms of action in the body and the amounts needed for optimal health are not well-defined[29][30]Broccoli, grape juice (especially red), meat, whole grain products[31]Chromium deficiencyChromium toxicity
Molybdenum00000.0450.0452; 0.6Required for the functioning of xanthine oxidase, aldehyde oxidase, and sulfite oxidase[32]Legumes, whole grains, nuts[26]molybdenum deficiencymolybdenum toxicity[33]
Selenium00000.0550.0550.4; 0.3Essential to activity of antioxidant enzymes like glutathione peroxidaseBrazil nuts, seafoods, organ meats, meats, grains, dairy products, eggs[34]selenium deficiencyselenosis
CobaltnoneNE; NERequired in the synthesis of vitamin B12, but because bacteria are required to synthesize the vitamin, it is usually considered part of vitamin B12 which comes from eating animals and animal-sourced foods (eggs...)Cobalt poisoning

RDA = Recommended Dietary Allowance; AI= Adequate intake; UL = Tolerable upper intake level; Figures shown are for adults age 31-50, male or female neither pregnant nor lactating

* One serving of seaweed exceeds the US UL of 1100 μg but not the 3000 μg UL set by Japan.[35]

Blood concentrations of minerals[edit]

Minerals are present in a healthy human being's blood at certain mass and molar concentrations. The figure below presents the concentrations of each of the chemical elements discussed in this article, from center-right to the right. Depending on the concentrations, some are in upper part of the picture, while others are in the lower part. The figure includes the relative values of other constituents of blood such as hormones. In the figure, minerals are color highlighted in purple.

Reference ranges for blood tests, sorted logarithmically by mass above the scale and by molarity below. (A separate printable image is available for mass and molarity)

Dietary nutrition[edit]

Dietitians may recommend that minerals are best supplied by ingesting specific foods rich with the chemical element(s) of interest. The elements may be naturally present in the food (e.g., calcium in dairy milk) or added to the food (e.g., orange juice fortified with calcium; iodized salt fortified with iodine). Dietary supplements can be formulated to contain several different chemical elements (as compounds), a combination of vitamins and/or other chemical compounds, or a single element (as a compound or mixture of compounds), such as calcium (calcium carbonate, calcium citrate) or magnesium (magnesium oxide), or iron (ferrous sulfate, iron bis-glycinate).

The dietary focus on chemical elements derives from an interest in supporting the biochemical reactions of metabolism with the required elemental components.[36] Appropriate intake levels of certain chemical elements have been demonstrated to be required to maintain optimal health. Diet can meet all the body's chemical element requirements, although supplements can be used when some recommendations are not adequately met by the diet. An example would be a diet low in dairy products, and hence not meeting the recommendation for calcium.

Safety[edit]

The gap between recommended daily intake and what are considered safe upper limits (ULs) can be small. For example, for calcium the U.S. Food and Drug Administration set the recommended intake for adults over 70 years at 1,200 mg/day and the UL at 2,000 mg/day.[16] The European Union also sets recommended amounts and upper limits, which are not always in accord with the U.S.[17] Likewise, Japan, which sets the UL for iodine at 3000 μg versus 1100 for the U.S. and 600 for the EU.[35] In the table above, magnesium appears to be an anomaly as the recommended intake for adult men is 420 mg/day (women 350 mg/day) while the UL is lower than the recommended, at 350 mg. The reason is that the UL is specific to consuming more than 350 mg of magnesium all at once, in the form of a dietary supplement, as this may cause diarrhea. Magnesium-rich foods do not cause this problem.[37]

Elements considered possibly essential for humans but not confirmed[edit]

Many ultratrace elements have been suggested as essential, but such claims have usually not been confirmed. Definitive evidence for efficacy comes from the characterization of a biomolecule containing the element with an identifiable and testable function.[6] One problem with identifying efficacy is that some elements are innocuous at low concentrations and are pervasive (examples: silicon and nickel in solid and dust), so proof of efficacy is lacking because deficiencies are difficult to reproduce.[36] Ultratrace elements of some minerals such as silicon and boron are known to have a role but the exact biochemical nature is unknown, and others such as arsenic are suspected to have a role in health, but with weaker evidence.[6]

ElementDescriptionExcess
BrominePossibly important to basement membrane architecture and tissue development, as a needed catalyst to make collagen IV.[38]bromism
ArsenicEssential in rat, hamster, goat and chicken models, but no research has been done in humans.[39]arsenic poisoning
NickelNickel is an essential component of several enzymes, including urease and hydrogenase.[40] Although not required by humans, some are thought to be required by gut bacteria, such as urease required by some varieties of Bifidobacterium.[41] In humans, nickel may be a cofactor or structural component of certain metalloenzymes involved in hydrolysis, redox reactions and gene expression. Nickel deficiency depressed growth in goats, pigs, and sheep, and diminished circulating thyroid hormone concentration in rats.[42]Nickel toxicity
FluorineFluorine (as fluoride) is not considered an essential element because humans do not require it for growth or to sustain life. Research indicates that the primary dental benefit from fluoride occurs at the surface from topical exposure.[43][44] Of the minerals in this table, fluoride is the only one for which the U.S. Institute of Medicine has established an Adequate Intake.[45]Fluoride poisoning
BoronBoron is an essential plant nutrient, required primarily for maintaining the integrity of cell walls.[46][47][48] Boron has been shown to be essential to complete the life cycle in representatives of all kingdoms of life.[40][49] In animals, supplemental boron has been shown to reduce calcium excretion and activate vitamin D.[50]No acute effects (LD50 of boric acid is 2.5 grams per kilogram body weight)

Chronic effects of long term high dose boron exposure are not fully elucidated

LithiumIt is not known whether lithium has a physiological role in any species,[51] but nutritional studies in some mammals have indicated its importance to health, leading to a suggestion that it be classed as an essential trace element.Lithium toxicity
StrontiumStrontium has been found to be involved in the utilization of calcium in the body. It has promoting action on calcium uptake into bone at moderate dietary strontium levels, but a rachitogenic (rickets-producing) action at higher dietary levels.[52]Certain forms of Rickets
OtherSilicon and vanadium have established, albeit specialized, biochemical roles as structural or functional cofactors in other organisms, and are possibly, even probably, used by mammals (including humans). By contrast, tungsten, the early lanthanides, and cadmium have specialized biochemical uses in certain lower organisms, but these elements appear not to be utilized by mammals.[53] Other elements considered to be possibly essential include aluminium, germanium, lead, rubidium, and tin.[40][54][55]Multiple

Mineral ecology[edit]

Further information: Biomineralization

Minerals can be bioengineered by bacteria which act on metals to catalyze mineral dissolution and precipitation.[56] Mineral nutrients are recycled by bacteria distributed throughout soils, oceans, freshwater, groundwater, and glacier meltwater systems worldwide.[56][57] Bacteria absorb dissolved organic matter containing minerals as they scavenge phytoplankton blooms.[57] Mineral nutrients cycle through this marine food chain, from bacteria and phytoplankton to flagellates and zooplankton, which are then eaten by other marine life.[56][57] In terrestrial ecosystems, fungi have similar roles as bacteria, mobilizing minerals from matter inaccessible by other organisms, then transporting the acquired nutrients to local ecosystems.[58][59]

See also[edit]

  • Food composition
  • Mineral deficiency
  • Micronutrient
  • Human nutrition

References[edit]

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Further reading[edit]

  • Humphry Bowen (1966) Trace Elements in Biochemistry. Academic Press.
  • Humphrey Bowen (1979) Environmental Chemistry of the Elements. Academic Press, ISBN 0-12-120450-2.

External links[edit]

  • Metals in Nutrition
  • Concept of a nutritious food: toward a nutrient density score