Túnez , [a] oficialmente la República de Túnez , [b] es el país más septentrional de África . Es una parte de la región del Magreb del norte de África y limita con Argelia al oeste y suroeste, Libia al sureste y el mar Mediterráneo al norte y este; que cubre 163.610 km 2 (63.170 millas cuadradas), con una población de 11 millones. Contiene el extremo oriental de las montañas del Atlas y el extremo norte del desierto del Sahara , con gran parte de su territorio restante de tierra cultivable.. Sus 1.300 km (810 millas) de costa incluyen la conjunción africana de las partes occidental y oriental de la cuenca mediterránea . Túnez alberga el punto más septentrional de África, Cabo Ángela ; y su capital y ciudad más grande es Túnez , ubicada en su costa noreste, lo que da nombre al país.
República de Túnez الجمهورية التونسية ( árabe ) al-Jumhūrīyah at-Tūnisīyah République tunisienne ( francés ) | |
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Lema: حرية, كرامة, عدالة, نظام " Hurriya, Karama, 'adalah, Nizam " "la libertad, la dignidad, la justicia y el orden" [1] | |
Ubicación de Túnez en el norte de África | |
Capital y ciudad más grande | Túnez 36 ° 49'N 10 ° 11'E / 36.817 ° N 10.183 ° E |
Lenguajes oficiales | Árabe [2] |
Lenguajes hablados | |
Grupos étnicos | Árabe-bereber 98%, europeo 1%, judío y otros 1% [8] [9] |
Religión | Islam ( oficial ) [10] |
Demonym (s) | tunecino |
Gobierno | República constitucional unitaria semipresidencialista [11] [12] |
• presidente | Kais Saied |
• Primer Ministro | Hichem Mechichi |
• Altavoz de montaje | Rached Ghannouchi |
Legislatura | Asamblea de Representantes del Pueblo |
Establecimiento | |
• Inaugurada la antigua Cartago | 814 a. C. |
• Inaugurados los aglabíes | 800 |
• Inaugurado el Califato Fatimí | 909 |
• Se inaugura la dinastía Hafsid | 1207 |
• dinastía Husainid inaugurado | 15 de julio de 1705 |
• Independencia de Francia | 20 de marzo de 1956 |
• República declarada | 25 de julio de 1957 |
• Golpe de Estado tunecino de 1987 | 7 de noviembre de 1987 |
• Día de la Revolución | 14 de enero de 2011 |
• 2da república declarada | 10 de febrero de 2014 |
Área | |
• Total | 163.610 km 2 (63.170 millas cuadradas) ( 91o ) |
• Agua (%) | 5,04 |
Población | |
• Estimación 2020 | 11,708,370 [13] ( 81º ) |
• Densidad | 71,65 / km 2 (185,6 / mi2 ) ( 110º ) |
PIB ( PPA ) | Estimación 2020 |
• Total | $ 159.707 mil millones [14] |
• Per cápita | $ 13,417 [14] |
PIB (nominal) | Estimación 2020 |
• Total | $ 44.192 mil millones [14] |
• Per cápita | $ 3,713 [14] |
Gini (2017) | 35,8 [15] medio |
IDH (2019) | 0,740 [16] alto · 95º |
Divisa | Dinar tunecino ( TND ) |
Zona horaria | UTC +1 ( CET ) |
Lado de conducción | derecho |
Código de llamada | +216 |
Código ISO 3166 | Tennesse |
TLD de Internet |
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Desde la antigüedad, Túnez estuvo habitada por los indígenas bereberes . Los fenicios comenzaron a llegar en el siglo XII a.C., estableciendo varios asentamientos, de los cuales Cartago emergió como el más poderoso en el siglo VII a.C. Importante imperio mercantil y rival militar de la República romana , Cartago fue derrotada por los romanos en 146 a. C., quienes ocuparon Túnez durante la mayor parte de los siguientes 800 años, introduciendo el cristianismo y dejando legados arquitectónicos como el anfiteatro de El Jem . Después de varios intentos a partir de 647, los musulmanes conquistaron todo Túnez en 697, llevando el Islam y la cultura árabe a los habitantes locales. El Imperio Otomano estableció el control en 1574 y dominó durante más de 300 años, hasta que los franceses conquistaron Túnez en 1881. Túnez obtuvo la independencia bajo el liderazgo de Habib Bourguiba , quien declaró la República de Túnez en 1957. Hoy, Túnez es la nación más pequeña del norte África y su cultura e identidad están arraigadas en esta intersección de siglos de diferentes culturas y etnias.
En 2011, la revolución tunecina , provocada por la falta de libertad y democracia bajo el mandato de 24 años del presidente Zine El Abidine Ben Ali , derrocó a su régimen y catalizó la Primavera Árabe en toda la región. Poco después se celebraron elecciones parlamentarias multipartidistas libres ; el país volvió a votar por el parlamento el 26 de octubre de 2014, [19] y por la presidencia el 23 de noviembre de 2014. [20] Túnez sigue siendo una república democrática representativa semipresidencial unitaria ; y es el único país del norte de África clasificado como "libre" por Freedom House , [21] y considerado el único estado plenamente democrático en el mundo árabe en la Unidad de Inteligencia de The Economist 's Índice de Democracia . [22] [c] Es uno de los pocos países de África con una clasificación alta en el Índice de Desarrollo Humano , con uno de los ingresos per cápita más altos del continente.
Túnez está bien integrado en la comunidad internacional. Es miembro de las Naciones Unidas , La Francofonía , la Liga Árabe , la OCI , la Unión Africana , el Movimiento de Países No Alineados , la Corte Penal Internacional y el Grupo de los 77 , entre otros. Mantiene estrechas relaciones económicas y políticas con algunos países europeos, en particular con Francia , [23] e Italia , [24] [25] que geográficamente se encuentran muy cerca de él. Túnez también tiene un acuerdo de asociación con la Unión Europea y también ha alcanzado el estatus de importante aliado de Estados Unidos no perteneciente a la OTAN .
Etimología
La palabra Túnez se deriva de Túnez ; un eje urbano central y la capital de la actual Túnez. La forma actual del nombre, con su sufijo latino -ia , evolucionó del francés Tunisie , [26] a su vez asociado generalmente con la raíz bereber ⵜⵏⵙ, transcrito tns , que significa "tumbar" o "acampar". [27] A veces también se asocia con la diosa púnica Tanith (también conocida como Tunit) , [26] [28] antigua ciudad de Tynes . [29] [30]
El derivado francés Tunisie se adoptó en algunos idiomas europeos con ligeras modificaciones, introduciendo un nombre distintivo para designar al país. Otros idiomas han dejado sin tocar el nombre, como el ruso Тунис ( de Túnez ) y Español Túnez . En este caso, se usa el mismo nombre tanto para el país como para la ciudad, como en el árabe تونس , y solo por el contexto se puede notar la diferencia. [26]
Antes de Túnez, el nombre del territorio era Ifriqiya o África , que dio el nombre actual del continente África.
Historia
Antigüedad
Los métodos agrícolas llegaron al valle del Nilo desde la región del Creciente Fértil alrededor del 5000 a. C. y se extendieron al Magreb hacia el 4000 a. C. Las comunidades agrícolas en las llanuras costeras húmedas del centro de Túnez eran antepasados de las tribus bereberes de hoy .
En la antigüedad se creía que África estaba originalmente poblada por gaetulios y libios, ambos pueblos nómadas. Según el historiador romano Salustio , el semidiós Hércules murió en España y su ejército oriental políglota se quedó para asentarse en la tierra, y algunos emigraron a África. Los persas fueron a Occidente y se casaron con los gaetulianos y se convirtieron en númidas. Los medos se asentaron y fueron conocidos como Mauri, más tarde moros. [31]
Los númidas y moros pertenecían a la raza de la que descienden los bereberes. El significado traducido de numidiano es nómada y, de hecho, la gente era seminómada hasta el reinado de Masinissa de la tribu Massyli. [32] [33] [34]
Al comienzo de la historia registrada, Túnez estaba habitada por tribus bereberes . Su costa fue poblada por fenicios a partir del siglo XII a.C. ( Bizerta , Utica ). La ciudad de Cartago fue fundada en el siglo IX a. C. por los fenicios. La leyenda dice que Dido de Tiro, ahora en el Líbano actual, fundó la ciudad en el 814 a. C., según lo cuenta el escritor griego Timeo de Tauromenium . Los colonos de Cartago trajeron su cultura y religión de Fenicia, actual Líbano y áreas adyacentes. [35]
Después de la serie de guerras con las ciudades-estado griegas de Sicilia en el siglo V a. C., Cartago subió al poder y finalmente se convirtió en la civilización dominante en el Mediterráneo occidental . La gente de Cartago adoraba a un panteón de dioses del Medio Oriente, incluidos Baal y Tanit . El símbolo de Tanit, una simple figura femenina con brazos extendidos y vestido largo, es un ícono popular que se encuentra en los sitios antiguos. Los fundadores de Cartago también establecieron un Tophet , que fue alterado en la época romana.
Una invasión cartaginesa de Italia dirigida por Aníbal durante la Segunda Guerra Púnica , una de una serie de guerras con Roma , casi paralizó el ascenso del poder romano. Desde la conclusión de la Segunda Guerra Púnica en 202 a. C., Cartago funcionó como un estado cliente de la República Romana durante otros 50 años. [36]
Tras la Batalla de Cartago que comenzó en el 149 a. C. durante la Tercera Guerra Púnica , Cartago fue conquistada por Roma en el 146 a. C. [37] Tras su conquista, los romanos cambiaron el nombre de Cartago a África , incorporándola como provincia.
Durante el período romano, el área de lo que hoy es Túnez disfrutó de un gran desarrollo. La economía, principalmente durante el Imperio, floreció: la prosperidad de la zona dependía de la agricultura. Llamado el Granero del Imperio , el área de la actual Túnez y la costa de Tripolitania , según una estimación, producía un millón de toneladas de cereales cada año, una cuarta parte de las cuales se exportaba al Imperio. Los cultivos adicionales incluyeron frijoles, higos, uvas y otras frutas.
En el siglo II, el aceite de oliva rivalizaba con los cereales como artículo de exportación. Además de los cultivos y la captura y transporte de animales silvestres exóticos de las montañas occidentales, la principal producción y exportación incluyó los textiles, el mármol, el vino, la madera, la ganadería, la alfarería como African Red Slip y la lana.
Incluso hubo una enorme producción de mosaicos y cerámicas, exportados principalmente a Italia, en la zona central de El Djem (donde estaba el segundo anfiteatro más grande del Imperio Romano).
El obispo bereber Donatus Magnus fue el fundador de un grupo cristiano conocido como los Donatistas . [38] Durante los siglos V y VI (del 430 al 533 d. C.), los vándalos germánicos invadieron y gobernaron un reino en el noroeste de África que incluía la actual Trípoli. La región fue reconquistada fácilmente en 533–534 d. C., durante el gobierno del emperador Justiniano I , por los romanos orientales dirigidos por el general Belisario . [39]
Edad media
En algún momento entre la segunda mitad del siglo VII y principios del siglo VIII, se produjo la conquista árabe musulmana en la región . Fundaron la primera ciudad islámica en el noroeste de África, Kairouan . Fue allí en el año 670 d.C. donde se construyó la Mezquita de Uqba , o la Gran Mezquita de Kairuán. [40] Esta mezquita es el santuario más antiguo y prestigioso del Occidente musulmán con el minarete en pie más antiguo del mundo; [41] también se considera una obra maestra del arte y la arquitectura islámicos. [42]
Túnez fue tomada en 695, reconquistada por los romanos bizantinos orientales en 697, pero perdida definitivamente en 698. La transición de una sociedad bereber cristiana de habla latina a una sociedad musulmana y mayoritariamente de habla árabe tomó más de 400 años (el proceso equivalente en Egipto y el Creciente Fértil tomó 600 años) y resultó en la desaparición final del cristianismo y el latín en los siglos XII o XIII. La mayoría de la población no era musulmana hasta bastante tarde en el siglo IX; una gran mayoría fue durante el día 10. Además, algunos cristianos tunecinos emigraron; algunos miembros más ricos de la sociedad lo hicieron después de la conquista en 698 y otros fueron recibidos por los gobernantes normandos en Sicilia o Italia en los siglos XI y XII, el destino lógico debido a la estrecha conexión de 1200 años entre las dos regiones. [43]
Los gobernadores árabes de Túnez fundaron la dinastía aglabí , que gobernó Túnez, Tripolitania y el este de Argelia de 800 a 909. [44] Túnez floreció bajo el dominio árabe cuando se construyeron amplios sistemas para abastecer a las ciudades con agua para uso doméstico y riego que promovían la agricultura ( especialmente la producción de aceitunas). [44] [45] Esta prosperidad permitió una vida lujosa en la corte y estuvo marcada por la construcción de nuevas ciudades palaciegas como al-Abassiya (809) y Raqadda (877). [44]
Después de conquistar El Cairo , los fatimíes abandonaron Túnez y partes del este de Argelia a los ziríes locales (972-1148). [46] Zirid Tunisia floreció en muchas áreas: agricultura, industria, comercio y aprendizaje religioso y secular. [47] Sin embargo, la gestión de los últimos emires ziríes fue negligente y la inestabilidad política estuvo relacionada con el declive del comercio y la agricultura tunecinos. [44] [48] [49]
La depredación de las campañas tunecinas por parte de los banu hilal , una belicosa tribu árabe beduina alentada por los fatimíes de Egipto a apoderarse del noroeste de África, hizo que la vida económica rural y urbana de la región empezara a declinar. [46] En consecuencia, la región experimentó una rápida urbanización cuando las hambrunas despoblaron el campo y la industria pasó de la agricultura a la manufactura. [50] El historiador árabe Ibn Khaldun escribió que las tierras devastadas por los invasores Banu Hilal se habían convertido en un desierto completamente árido. [48] [51]
Las principales ciudades tunecinas fueron conquistadas por los normandos de Sicilia bajo el Reino de África en el siglo XII, pero tras la conquista de Túnez en 1159-1160 por los almohades, los normandos fueron evacuados a Sicilia. Las comunidades de cristianos tunecinos seguirían existiendo en Nefzaoua hasta el siglo XIV. [52] Los almohades inicialmente gobernaron Túnez a través de un gobernador, generalmente un pariente cercano del Califa. A pesar del prestigio de los nuevos amos, el país seguía siendo rebelde, con continuos disturbios y luchas entre la gente del pueblo y los árabes y turcos errantes, siendo estos últimos súbditos del aventurero musulmán armenio Karakush. Además, Túnez fue ocupada por ayyubíes entre 1182 y 1183 y nuevamente entre 1184 y 1187. [53]
La mayor amenaza para el dominio almohade en Túnez eran los Banu Ghaniya , parientes de los almorávides , que desde su base en Mallorca intentaron restaurar el dominio almorávide sobre el Magreb. Hacia 1200 consiguieron extender su dominio sobre todo Túnez hasta que fueron aplastados por las tropas almohades en 1207. Después de este éxito, los almohades instalaron a Walid Abu Hafs como gobernador de Túnez. Túnez siguió siendo parte del estado almohade, hasta 1230, cuando el hijo de Abu Hafs se declaró independiente. Durante el reinado de la dinastía Hafsid , se establecieron fructíferas relaciones comerciales con varios estados cristianos mediterráneos. [54] A finales del siglo XVI, la costa se convirtió en un bastión pirata .
Ottoman Tunisia
In the last years of the Hafsid dynasty, Spain seized many of the coastal cities, but these were recovered by the Ottoman Empire.
The first Ottoman conquest of Tunis took place in 1534 under the command of Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha, the younger brother of Oruç Reis, who was the Kapudan Pasha of the Ottoman Fleet during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent. However, it was not until the final Ottoman reconquest of Tunis from Spain in 1574 under Kapudan Pasha Uluç Ali Reis that the Ottomans permanently acquired the former Hafsid Tunisia, retaining it until the French conquest of Tunisia in 1881.
Initially under Turkish rule from Algiers, soon the Ottoman Porte appointed directly for Tunis a governor called the Pasha supported by janissary forces. Before long, however, Tunisia became in effect an autonomous province, under the local Bey. Under its Turkish governors, the Beys, Tunisia attained virtual independence. The Hussein dynasty of Beys, established in 1705, lasted until 1957.[55] This evolution of status was from time to time challenged without success by Algiers. During this era the governing councils controlling Tunisia remained largely composed of a foreign elite who continued to conduct state business in the Turkish language.
Attacks on European shipping were made by corsairs, primarily from Algiers, but also from Tunis and Tripoli, yet after a long period of declining raids the growing power of the European states finally forced its termination. Under the Ottoman Empire, the boundaries of Tunisia contracted; it lost territory to the west (Constantine) and to the east (Tripoli).
The plague epidemics ravaged Tunisia in 1784–1785, 1796–1797 and 1818–1820.[56]
In the 19th century, the rulers of Tunisia became aware of the ongoing efforts at political and social reform in the Ottoman capital. The Bey of Tunis then, by his own lights but informed by the Turkish example, attempted to effect a modernizing reform of institutions and the economy.[57] Tunisian international debt grew unmanageable. This was the reason or pretext for French forces to establish a protectorate in 1881.
French Tunisia (1881–1956)
In 1869, Tunisia declared itself bankrupt and an international financial commission took control over its economy. In 1881, using the pretext of a Tunisian incursion into Algeria, the French invaded with an army of about 36,000 and forced the Bey to agree to the terms of the 1881 Treaty of Bardo (Al Qasr as Sa'id).[58] With this treaty, Tunisia was officially made a French protectorate, over the objections of Italy. Under French colonization, European settlements in the country were actively encouraged; the number of French colonists grew from 34,000 in 1906 to 144,000 in 1945. In 1910 there were 105,000 Italians in Tunisia.[59]
During World War II, French Tunisia was ruled by the collaborationist Vichy government located in Metropolitan France. The antisemitic Statute on Jews enacted by the Vichy was also implemented in Vichy Northwest Africa and overseas French territories. Thus, the persecution, and murder of the Jews from 1940 to 1943 was part of the Shoah in France.
From November 1942 until May 1943, Vichy Tunisia was occupied by Nazi Germany. SS Commander Walter Rauff continued to implement the Final Solution there. From 1942 to 1943, Tunisia was the scene of the Tunisia Campaign, a series of battles between the Axis and Allied forces. The battle opened with initial success by the German and Italian forces, but the massive supply and numerical superiority of the Allies led to the Axis surrender on 13 May 1943.[60][61]
Post-independence (1956–2011)
Tunisia achieved independence from France on 20 March 1956 with Habib Bourguiba as Prime Minister.[62] 20 March is celebrated annually as Tunisian Independence Day.[63] A year later, Tunisia was declared a republic, with Bourguiba as the first President.[64] From independence in 1956 until the 2011 revolution, the government and the Constitutional Democratic Rally (RCD), formerly Neo Destour and the Socialist Destourian Party, were effectively one. Following a report by Amnesty International, The Guardian called Tunisia "one of the most modern but repressive countries in the Arab world".[65]
In November 1987, doctors[66] declared Bourguiba unfit to rule and, in a bloodless coup d'état, Prime Minister Zine El Abidine Ben Ali assumed the presidency[64] in accordance with Article 57 of the Tunisian constitution.[67] The anniversary of Ben Ali's succession, 7 November, was celebrated as a national holiday. He was consistently re-elected with enormous majorities every five years (well over 80 percent of the vote), the last being 25 October 2009,[68] until he fled the country amid popular unrest in January 2011.
Ben Ali and his family were accused of corruption[69] and plundering the country's money. Economic liberalisation provided further opportunities for financial mismanagement,[70] while corrupt members of the Trabelsi family, most notably in the cases of Imed Trabelsi and Belhassen Trabelsi, controlled much of the business sector in the country.[71] The First Lady Leila Ben Ali was described as an "unabashed shopaholic" who used the state airplane to make frequent unofficial trips to Europe's fashion capitals.[72] Tunisia refused a French request for the extradition of two of the President's nephews, from Leila's side, who were accused by the French State prosecutor of having stolen two mega-yachts from a French marina.[73] Ben Ali's son-in-law Sakher El Materi was rumoured as being primed to eventually take over the country.[74]
Independent human rights groups, such as Amnesty International, Freedom House, and Protection International, documented that basic human and political rights were not respected.[75][76] The regime obstructed in any way possible the work of local human rights organizations.[77] In 2008, in terms of Press freedom, Tunisia was ranked 143rd out of 173.[78]
Post-revolution (since 2011)
The Tunisian Revolution[79][80] was an intensive campaign of civil resistance that was precipitated by high unemployment, food inflation, corruption,[81] a lack of freedom of speech and other political freedoms[82] and poor living conditions. Labour unions were said to be an integral part of the protests.[83] The protests inspired the Arab Spring, a wave of similar actions throughout the Arab world.
The catalyst for mass demonstrations was the death of Mohamed Bouazizi, a 26-year-old Tunisian street vendor, who set himself afire on 17 December 2010 in protest at the confiscation of his wares and the humiliation inflicted on him by a municipal official named Faida Hamdy. Anger and violence intensified following Bouazizi's death on 4 January 2011, ultimately leading longtime President Zine El Abidine Ben Ali to resign and flee the country on 14 January 2011, after 23 years in power.[84]
Protests continued for banning of the ruling party and the eviction of all its members from the transitional government formed by Mohammed Ghannouchi. Eventually the new government gave in to the demands. A Tunis court banned the ex-ruling party RCD and confiscated all its resources. A decree by the minister of the interior banned the "political police", special forces which were used to intimidate and persecute political activists.[85]
On 3 March 2011, the interim president announced that elections to a Constituent Assembly would be held on 24 July 2011.[86] On 9 June 2011, the prime minister announced the election would be postponed until 23 October 2011.[87] International and internal observers declared the vote free and fair. The Ennahda Movement, formerly banned under the Ben Ali regime, came out of the election as the largest party, with 89 seats out of a total of 217.[88] On 12 December 2011, former dissident and veteran human rights activist Moncef Marzouki was elected president.[89]
In March 2012, Ennahda declared it will not support making sharia the main source of legislation in the new constitution, maintaining the secular nature of the state. Ennahda's stance on the issue was criticized by hardline Islamists, who wanted strict sharia, but was welcomed by secular parties.[90] On 6 February 2013, Chokri Belaid, the leader of the leftist opposition and prominent critic of Ennahda, was assassinated.[91]
In 2014, President Moncef Marzouki established Tunisia's Truth and Dignity Commission, as a key part of creating a national reconciliation.[92]
Tunisia was hit by two terror attacks on foreign tourists in 2015, first killing 22 people at the Bardo National Museum, and later killing 38 people at the Sousse beachfront. Tunisian president Beji Caid Essebsi renewed the state of emergency in October for three more months.[93]
The Tunisian National Dialogue Quartet won the 2015 Nobel Peace Prize for its work in building a peaceful, pluralistic political order in Tunisia.[94]
Tunisia's first democratically elected president Beji Caid Essebsi died in July 2019. After him Kais Saied became Tunisia's president after a landslide victory in the 2019 Tunisian presidential elections in October 2019.[95]
Geografía
Tunisia is situated on the Mediterranean coast of Northwest Africa, midway between the Atlantic Ocean and the Nile Delta. It is bordered by Algeria on the west and southwest and Libya on the south east. It lies between latitudes 30° and 38°N, and longitudes 7° and 12°E. An abrupt southward turn of the Mediterranean coast in northern Tunisia gives the country two distinctive Mediterranean coasts, west–east in the north, and north–south in the east.
Though it is relatively small in size, Tunisia has great environmental diversity due to its north–south extent. Its east–west extent is limited. Differences in Tunisia, like the rest of the Maghreb, are largely north–south environmental differences defined by sharply decreasing rainfall southward from any point. The Dorsal, the eastern extension of the Atlas Mountains, runs across Tunisia in a northeasterly direction from the Algerian border in the west to the Cape Bon peninsula in the east. North of the Dorsal is the Tell, a region characterized by low, rolling hills and plains, again an extension of mountains to the west in Algeria. In the Khroumerie, the northwestern corner of the Tunisian Tell, elevations reach 1,050 metres (3,440 ft) and snow occurs in winter.
The Sahel, a broadening coastal plain along Tunisia's eastern Mediterranean coast, is among the world's premier areas of olive cultivation. Inland from the Sahel, between the Dorsal and a range of hills south of Gafsa, are the Steppes. Much of the southern region is semi-arid and desert.
Tunisia has a coastline 1,148 kilometres (713 mi) long. In maritime terms, the country claims a contiguous zone of 24 nautical miles (44.4 km; 27.6 mi), and a territorial sea of 12 nautical miles (22.2 km; 13.8 mi).[96] The city of Tunis is built on a hill slope down to the lake of Tunis. These hills contain places such as Notre-Dame de Tunis, Ras Tabia, La Rabta, La Kasbah, Montfleury and La Manoubia with altitudes just above 50 metres (160 feet). The city is located at the crossroads of a narrow strip of land between Lake Tunis and Séjoumi.[97]
Climate
Tunisia's climate is Mediterranean in the north, with mild rainy winters and hot, dry summers.[98] The south of the country is desert. The terrain in the north is mountainous, which, moving south, gives way to a hot, dry central plain. The south is semiarid, and merges into the Sahara. A series of salt lakes, known as chotts or shatts, lie in an east–west line at the northern edge of the Sahara, extending from the Gulf of Gabes into Algeria. The lowest point is Chott el Djerid at 17 metres (56 ft) below sea level and the highest is Jebel ech Chambi at 1,544 metres (5,066 ft).[99]
Climate data for Tunisia in general | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Month | Jan | Feb | Mar | Apr | May | Jun | Jul | Aug | Sep | Oct | Nov | Dec | Year |
Average high °C (°F) | 14.7 (58.5) | 15.7 (60.3) | 17.6 (63.7) | 20.3 (68.5) | 24.4 (75.9) | 28.9 (84.0) | 32.4 (90.3) | 32.3 (90.1) | 29.2 (84.6) | 24.6 (76.3) | 19.6 (67.3) | 15.8 (60.4) | 23.0 (73.3) |
Average low °C (°F) | 6.4 (43.5) | 6.5 (43.7) | 8.2 (46.8) | 10.4 (50.7) | 13.8 (56.8) | 17.7 (63.9) | 20.1 (68.2) | 20.7 (69.3) | 19 (66) | 15.2 (59.4) | 10.7 (51.3) | 7.5 (45.5) | 13.0 (55.4) |
Average rainfall mm (inches) | 50.5 (1.99) | 45.3 (1.78) | 43.4 (1.71) | 35.5 (1.40) | 21 (0.8) | 10.8 (0.43) | 3.7 (0.15) | 8.8 (0.35) | 10.5 (0.41) | 38.6 (1.52) | 46.4 (1.83) | 56.4 (2.22) | 370.9 (14.59) |
Source: Weatherbase[100] |
Biodiversity
Tunisia is home to five terrestrial ecoregions: Mediterranean conifer and mixed forests, Saharan halophytics, Mediterranean dry woodlands and steppe, Mediterranean woodlands and forests, and North Saharan steppe and woodlands.[101]
Gobierno y políticas
Kais Saied President since 2019 | Hichem Mechichi Prime Minister since 2020 |
Tunisia is a representative democracy and a republic with a president serving as head of state, a prime minister as head of government, a unicameral parliament, and a civil law court system. The Constitution of Tunisia, adopted 26 January 2014, guarantees rights for women and states that the President's religion "shall be Islam". In October 2014 Tunisia held its first elections under the new constitution following the Arab Spring.[102] Tunisia (#69 worldwide) is the only democracy in North Africa.[103]
The number of legalized political parties in Tunisia has grown considerably since the revolution. There are now over 100 legal parties, including several that existed under the former regime. During the rule of Ben Ali, only three functioned as independent opposition parties: the PDP, FDTL, and Tajdid. While some older parties are well-established and can draw on previous party structures, many of the 100-plus parties extant as of February 2012 are small.[104]
Rare for the Arab world, women held more than 20% of seats in the country's pre-revolution bicameral parliament.[105] In the 2011 constituent assembly, women held between 24% and 31% of all seats.[106][107]
Tunisia is included in the European Union's European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP), which aims at bringing the EU and its neighbours closer. On 23 November 2014 Tunisia held its first Presidential Election following the Arab Spring in 2011.[108]
The Tunisian legal system is heavily influenced by French civil law, while the Law of Personal Status is based on Islamic law.[109] Sharia courts were abolished in 1956.[109]
A Code of Personal Status was adopted shortly after independence in 1956, which, among other things, gave women full legal status (allowing them to run and own businesses, have bank accounts, and seek passports under their own authority). The code outlawed the practices of polygamy and repudiation and a husband's right to unilaterally divorce his wife.[110] Further reforms in 1993 included a provision to allow Tunisian women to transmit citizenship even if they are married to a foreigner and living abroad.[111] The Law of Personal Status is applied to all Tunisians regardless of their religion.[109] The Code of Personal Status remains one of the most progressive civil codes in North Africa and the Muslim world.[112]
Military
As of 2008[update], Tunisia had an army of 27,000 personnel equipped with 84 main battle tanks and 48 light tanks. The navy had 4,800 personnel operating 25 patrol boats and 6 other craft. The Tunisian Air Force has 154 aircraft and 4 UAVs. Paramilitary forces consisted of a 12,000-member national guard.[113] Tunisia's military spending was 1.6% of GDP as of 2006[update]. The army is responsible for national defence and also internal security. Tunisia has participated in peacekeeping efforts in the DROC and Ethiopia/Eritrea.[114] United Nations peacekeeping deployments for the Tunisian armed forces have been in Cambodia (UNTAC), Namibia (UNTAG), Somalia, Rwanda, Burundi, Western Sahara (MINURSO) and the 1960s mission in the Congo, ONUC.
The military has historically played a professional, apolitical role in defending the country from external threats. Since January 2011 and at the direction of the executive branch, the military has taken on increasing responsibility for domestic security and humanitarian crisis response.[104]
Administrative divisions
Tunisia is subdivided into 24 governorates (Wilaya), which are further divided into 264 "delegations" or "districts" (mutamadiyat), and further subdivided into municipalities (baladiyats)[115] and sectors (imadats).[116]
Economía
Ranked the most competitive economy in Africa by the World Economic Forum in 2009;[117] Tunisia is an export-oriented country in the process of liberalizing and privatizing an economy that, while averaging 5% GDP growth since the early 1990s, has suffered from corruption benefiting politically connected elites.[118] Tunisia's Penal Code criminalises several forms of corruption, including active and passive bribery, abuse of office, extortion and conflicts of interest, but the anti-corruption framework is not effectively enforced.[119] However, according to the Corruption Perceptions Index published annually by Transparency International, Tunisia was ranked the least corrupt North African country in 2016, with a score of 41. Tunisia has a diverse economy, ranging from agriculture, mining, manufacturing, and petroleum products, to tourism, which accounted for 7% of the total GDP and 370,000 jobs in 2009.[120] In 2008 it had an economy of US$41 billion in nominal terms, and $82 billion in PPP.[121]
The agricultural sector accounts for 11.6% of the GDP, industry 25.7%, and services 62.8%. The industrial sector is mainly made up of clothing and footwear manufacturing, production of car parts, and electric machinery. Although Tunisia managed an average 5% growth over the last decade it continues to suffer from a high unemployment especially among youth.[citation needed]
The European Union remains Tunisia's first trading partner, currently accounting for 72.5% of Tunisian imports and 75% of Tunisian exports. Tunisia is one of the European Union's most established trading partners in the Mediterranean region and ranks as the EU's 30th largest trading partner. Tunisia was the first Mediterranean country to sign an Association Agreement with the European Union, in July 1995, although even before the date of entry came into force, Tunisia started dismantling tariffs on bilateral EU trade. Tunisia finalised the tariffs dismantling for industrial products in 2008 and therefore was the first non-EU Mediterranean country to enter in a free trade area with EU.[122]
Tourism
Among Tunisia's tourist attractions are its cosmopolitan capital city of Tunis, the ancient ruins of Carthage, the Muslim and Jewish quarters of Jerba, and coastal resorts outside of Monastir. According to The New York Times, Tunisia is "known for its golden beaches, sunny weather and affordable luxuries".[123]
Energy
The majority of the electricity used in Tunisia is produced locally, by state-owned company STEG (Société Tunisienne de l'Electricité et du Gaz). In 2008, a total of 13,747 GWh was produced in the country.[125]
Oil production of Tunisia is about 97,600 barrels per day (15,520 m3/d). The main field is El Bourma.[126]
Oil production began in 1966 in Tunisia. Currently there are 12 oil fields.[127]
Tunisia had plans for two nuclear power stations, to be operational by 2020. Both facilities are projected to produce 900–1000 MW. France is set to become an important partner in Tunisia's nuclear power plans, having signed an agreement, along with other partners, to deliver training and technology.[128][129] As of 2015[update], Tunisia has abandoned these plans. Instead, Tunisia is considering other options to diversify its energy mix, such as renewable energies, coal, shale gas, liquified natural gas and constructing a submarine power interconnection with Italy.[130]
According to the Tunisian Solar Plan (which is Tunisia's Renewable Energy Strategy not limited to solar, contrary to what its title may suggest, proposed by the National Agency for Energy Conservation), Tunisia's objective is to reach a share of 30% of renewable energies in the electricity mix by 2030, most of which should be accounted for by wind power and photovoltaics.[131] As of 2015[update], Tunisia had a total renewable capacity of 312 MW (245 MW wind, 62 MW hydropower, 15 MW photovoltaics.)[132][133]
Transport
The country maintains 19,232 kilometres (11,950 mi) of roads,[121] with three highways: the A1 from Tunis to Sfax (works ongoing for Sfax-Libya), A3 Tunis-Beja (works ongoing Beja – Boussalem, studies ongoing Boussalem – Algeria) and A4 Tunis – Bizerte. There are 29 airports in Tunisia, with Tunis Carthage International Airport and Djerba–Zarzis International Airport being the most important ones. A new airport, Enfidha – Hammamet International Airport opened in 2011. The airport is located north of Sousse at Enfidha and is to mainly serve the resorts of Hamammet and Port El Kantaoui, together with inland cities such as Kairouan. Five airlines are headquartered in Tunisia: Tunisair, Syphax airlines, Karthago Airlines, Nouvelair, and Tunisair Express. The railway network is operated by SNCFT and amounts to 2,135 kilometres (1,327 mi) in total.[121] The Tunis area is served by a Light rail network named Metro Leger which is managed by Transtu.
Water supply and sanitation
Tunisia has achieved the highest access rates to water supply and sanitation services in the Middle East and North Africa. As of 2011[update], access to safe drinking water became close to universal approaching 100% in urban areas and 90% in rural areas.[134] Tunisia provides good quality drinking water throughout the year.[135]
Responsibility for the water supply systems in urban areas and large rural centres is assigned to the Sociéte Nationale d'Exploitation et de Distribution des Eaux (SONEDE), a national water supply authority that is an autonomous public entity under the Ministry of Agriculture. Planning, design and supervision of small and medium water supplies in the remaining rural areas are the responsibility of the Direction Générale du Génie Rurale (DGGR).
In 1974, ONAS was established to manage the sanitation sector. Since 1993, ONAS has had the status of a main operator for protection of water environment and combating pollution.
The rate of non-revenue water is the lowest in the region at 21% in 2012.[136]
Demografía
According to the CIA, as of 2017, Tunisia has a population of 11,403,800 inhabitants.[121] The government has supported a successful family planning program that has reduced the population growth rate to just over 1% per annum, contributing to Tunisia's economic and social stability.[104]
Ethnic groups
According to the CIA World Factbook, ethnic groups in Tunisia are: Arab 98%, European 1%, Jewish and other 1%.[121]
According to the 1956 Tunisian census, Tunisia had a population at the time of 3,783,000 residents, 95% consisting of Berbers and Arabs, 256 000 Europeans and 105 000 Jews. Speakers of Berber dialects were 2% of the population.[137] According to another source, the population of Arabs is estimated to be <40%[138] to 98%,[121][139][140] and that of Berbers at 1%[141] to over 60%.[138][clarification needed]
Amazighs are concentrated in the Dahar mountains and on the island of Djerba in the south-east and in the Khroumire mountainous region in the north-west. That said, an important number of genetic and other historical studies point out to the predominance of the Amazighs in Tunisia.[142]
An Ottoman influence has been particularly significant in forming the Turco-Tunisian community. Other peoples have also migrated to Tunisia during different time periods, including West Africans, Greeks, Romans, Phoenicians (Punics), Jews, and French settlers.[143] By 1870, the distinction between the Arabic-speaking population and the Turkish elite had blurred.[144]
From the late 19th century to the period after World War II, Tunisia was home to large populations of French and Italians (255,000 Europeans in 1956),[145] although nearly all of them, along with the Jewish population, left after Tunisia became independent. The history of the Jews in Tunisia goes back some 2,000 years. In 1948, the Jewish population was estimated at 105,000, but by 2013 only about 1000 remained.[146]
The first people known to history in what is now Tunisia were the Berbers. Numerous civilizations and peoples have invaded, migrated to, or have been assimilated into the population over the millennia, with influences of population from Phoenicians/Carthaginians, Romans, Vandals, Arabs, Spaniards, Ottoman Turks and Janissaries, and French. There was a continuing inflow of nomadic Arab tribes from the Arabian Peninsula.[46]
After the Reconquista and expulsion of non-Christians and Moriscos from Spain, many Spanish Muslims and Jews arrived in Tunisia. According to Matthew Carr, "As many as eighty thousand Moriscos settled in Tunisia, most of them in and around the capital, Tunis, which still contains a quarter known as Zuqaq al-Andalus, or Andalusia Alley."[147]
Languages
Arabic is the official language, and Tunisian Arabic, known as Tounsi,[148] is the national, vernacular variety of Arabic used by the public.[149] There is also a small minority of speakers of Berber languages known collectively as Jebbali or Shelha.[150][151]
French also plays a major role in Tunisian society, despite having no official status. It is widely used in education (e.g., as the language of instruction in the sciences in secondary school), the press, and business. In 2010, there were 6,639,000 French-speakers in Tunisia, or about 64% of the population.[152] Italian is understood and spoken by a small part of the Tunisian population.[153] Shop signs, menus and road signs in Tunisia are generally written in both Arabic and French.[154]
Religion
Tunisia's constitution declares Islam as the official state religion—and the absolute majority of its population, or around 98%, are Muslims, while some 2% follow Christianity and Judaism or other religions.[121] Although most of the population are Muslims, more than one-third of them identify as non-religious. The percentage of Tunisians identifying themselves as non-religious increased from around 12% in 2013 to around 33% in 2018, making Tunisia the least religious country in the Arab world according to the Aran Barometer Survey.[155] The same survey found that nearly half of the young Tunisians described themselves as non-religious.[156] Tunisians enjoy a significant degree of religious freedom, a right enshrined and protected in its constitution, which guarantees the freedom of thoughts, beliefs and to practice one's religion.[157] The country has a secular culture where religion is separated from not only political, but also public life. Individual Tunisians are tolerant of religious freedom and generally do not inquire about a person's personal beliefs.[157]
The bulk of Tunisians belong to the Maliki School of Sunni Islam, and their mosques are easily recognizable by square minarets. However, the Turks brought with them the teaching of the Hanafi School during Ottoman rule, which still survives among families of Turkish descent today; their mosques traditionally have octagonal minarets.[158] Sunnis form the majority, with non-denominational Muslims being the second largest group of Muslims,[159] followed by Ibadite Amazighs.[160][161]
Tunisia's sizable Christian community of around >35,000 adherents[162][163] is composed mainly of Catholics (22,000), and to a lesser degree Protestants. Berber Christians continued to live in some Nefzaoua villages up until the early 15th century,[164] and the community of Tunisian Christians existed in the town of Tozeur up to the 18th century.[52] The International Religious Freedom Report for 2007 estimates that thousands of Tunisian Muslims have converted to Christianity.[165][166]
Judaism is the third-largest religion, with between 1,000 and 1,400 members.[167][168] One-third of the Jewish population lives in and around the capital. The remainder lives on the island of Djerba with 39 synagogues where the Jewish community dates back 2,600 years,[169] in Sfax, and in Hammam-Lif.[157] Djerba, an island in the Gulf of Gabès, is home to El Ghriba synagogue, which is one of the oldest synagogues in the world and the oldest uninterruptedly used. Many Jews consider it a pilgrimage site, with celebrations taking place there once a year due to its age and the legend that the synagogue was built using stones from Solomon's temple.[170] In fact, Tunisia along with Morocco, have been said to be the Arab countries most accepting of their Jewish populations.[171]
Education
The total adult literacy rate in 2008 was 78%[172] and this rate goes up to 97.3% when considering only people from 15 to 24 years old.[173] Education is given a high priority and accounts for 6% of GNP. A basic education for children between the ages of 6 and 16 has been compulsory since 1991. Tunisia ranked 17th in the category of "quality of the [higher] educational system" and 21st in the category of "quality of primary education" in The Global Competitiveness Report 2008–9, released by The World Economic Forum.[174]
While children generally acquire Tunisian Arabic at home, when they enter school at age 6, they are taught to read and write in Standard Arabic. From the age of 8, they are taught French while English is introduced at the age of 12.[175]
The four years of secondary education are open to all holders of Diplôme de Fin d'Etudes de l'Enseignement de Base where the students focus on entering university level or join the workforce after completion. The Enseignement secondaire is divided into two stages: general academic and specialized. The higher education system in Tunisia has experienced a rapid expansion and the number of students has more than tripled over the past 10 years from approximately 102,000 in 1995 to 365,000 in 2005. The gross enrollment rate at the tertiary level in 2007 was 31 percent, with gender parity index of GER of 1.5.[174]
Health
In 2010, spending on healthcare accounted for 3.37% of the country's GDP. In 2009, there were 12.02 physicians and 33.12 nurses per 10,000 inhabitants.[176] The life expectancy at birth was 75.73 years in 2016, or 73.72 years for males and 77.78 years for females.[177] Infant mortality in 2016 was 11.7 per 1,000.[178]
Cultura
The culture of Tunisia is mixed due to its long established history of outside influence from people ‒ such as Phoenicians, Romans, Vandals, Byzantines, Arabs, Turks, Italians, Spaniards, and the French ‒ who all left their mark on the country.
Painting
The birth of Tunisian contemporary painting is strongly linked to the School of Tunis, established by a group of artists from Tunisia united by the desire to incorporate native themes and rejecting the influence of Orientalist colonial painting. It was founded in 1949 and brings together French and Tunisian Muslims, Christians and Jews. Pierre Boucherle was its main instigator, along with Yahia Turki, Abdelaziz Gorgi, Moses Levy, Ammar Farhat, and Jules Lellouche. Given its doctrine, some members have therefore turned to the sources of aesthetic Arab-Muslim art: such as miniature Islamic architecture, etc. Expressionist paintings by Amara Debbache, Jellal Ben Abdallah, and Ali Ben Salem are recognized while abstract art captures the imagination of painters like Edgar Naccache, Nello Levy, and Hedi Turki.[179]
After independence in 1956, the art movement in Tunisia was propelled by the dynamics of nation building and by artists serving the state. A Ministry of Culture was established, under the leadership of ministers such as Habib Boularès who oversaw art and education and power.[179] Artists gained international recognition such as Hatem El Mekki or Zoubeir Turki and influenced a generation of new young painters. Sadok Gmech draws his inspiration from national wealth while Moncef Ben Amor turns to fantasy. In another development, Youssef Rekik reused the technique of painting on glass and founded Nja Mahdaoui calligraphy with its mystical dimension.[179]
There are currently fifty art galleries housing exhibitions of Tunisian and international artists.[180] These galleries include Gallery Yahia in Tunis and Carthage Essaadi gallery.[180]
A new exposition opened in an old monarchal palace in Bardo dubbed the "awakening of a nation". The exposition boasts documents and artifacts from the Tunisian reformist monarchal rule in mid 19th century.[181]
Literature
Tunisian literature exists in two forms: Arabic and French. Arabic literature dates back to the 7th century with the arrival of Arab civilization in the region. It is more important in both volume and value than French literature, introduced during the French protectorate from 1881.[182]
Among the literary figures include Ali Douagi, who has produced more than 150 radio stories, over 500 poems and folk songs and nearly 15 plays,[183] Khraief Bashir, an Arabic novelist who published many notable books in the 1930s and which caused a scandal because the dialogues were written in Tunisian dialect,[183] and others such as Moncef Ghachem, Mohamed Salah Ben Mrad, or Mahmoud Messadi.
As for poetry, Tunisian poetry typically opts for nonconformity and innovation with poets such as Aboul-Qacem Echebbi.
As for literature in French, it is characterized by its critical approach. Contrary to the pessimism of Albert Memmi, who predicted that Tunisian literature was sentenced to die young,[184] a high number of Tunisian writers are abroad including Abdelwahab Meddeb, Bakri Tahar, Mustapha Tlili, Hele Beji, or Mellah Fawzi. The themes of wandering, exile and heartbreak are the focus of their creative writing.[citation needed]
The national bibliography lists 1249 non-school books published in 2002 in Tunisia, with 885 titles in Arabic.[185] In 2006 this figure had increased to 1,500 and 1,700 in 2007.[186] Nearly a third of the books are published for children.[187]
In 2014 Tunisian American creative nonfiction scribe and translator Med-Ali Mekki who wrote many books, not for publication but just for his own private reading translated the new Constitution of the Tunisian Republic from Arabic to English for the first time in Tunisian bibliographical history, the book was published worldwide the following year and it was the Internet's most viewed and downloaded Tunisian book.
Music
At the beginning of the 20th century, musical activity was dominated by the liturgical repertoire associated with different religious brotherhoods and secular repertoire which consisted of instrumental pieces and songs in different Andalusian forms and styles of origins, essentially borrowing characteristics of musical language. In 1930 "The Rachidia" was founded well known thanks to artists from the Jewish community. The founding in 1934 of a musical school helped revive Arab Andalusian music largely to a social and cultural revival led by the elite of the time who became aware of the risks of loss of the musical heritage and which they believed threatened the foundations of Tunisian national identity. The institution did not take long to assemble a group of musicians, poets, scholars. The creation of Radio Tunis in 1938 allowed musicians a greater opportunity to disseminate their works.[citation needed]
Notable Tunisian musicians include Saber Rebaï, Dhafer Youssef, Belgacem Bouguenna, Sonia M'barek, Latifa, Salah El Mahdi, Anouar Brahem, Emel Mathlouthi and Lotfi Bouchnak.
Media
The TV media has long remained under the domination of the Establishment of the Broadcasting Authority Tunisia (ERTT) and its predecessor, the Tunisian Radio and Television, founded in 1957. On 7 November 2006, President Zine el-Abidine Ben Ali announced the demerger of the business, which became effective on 31 August 2007. Until then, ERTT managed all public television stations (Télévision Tunisienne 1 as well as Télévision Tunisienne 2 which had replaced the defunct RTT 2) and four national radio stations (Radio Tunis, Tunisia Radio Culture, Youth and Radio RTCI) and five regional Sfax, Monastir, Gafsa, Le Kef and Tataouine. Most programs are in Arabic but some are in French. Growth in private sector radio and television broadcasting has seen the creation of numerous operations including Radio Mosaique FM, Jawhara FM, Zaytuna FM, Hannibal TV, Ettounsiya TV, and Nessma TV.[188][189]
In 2007, some 245 newspapers and magazines (compared to only 91 in 1987) are 90% owned by private groups and independents.[190] The Tunisian political parties have the right to publish their own newspapers, but those of the opposition parties have very limited editions (like Al Mawkif or Mouwatinoun). Before the recent democratic transition, although freedom of the press was formally guaranteed by the constitution, almost all newspapers have in practice followed the government line report. Critical approach to the activities of the president, government and the Constitutional Democratic Rally Party (then in power) were suppressed. In essence, the media was dominated by state authorities through the Agence Tunis Afrique Presse. This has changed since, as the media censorship by the authorities have been largely abolished, and self-censorship has significantly decreased.[191] Nonetheless, the current regulatory framework and social and political culture mean that the future of press and media freedom is still unclear.[191]
Sports
Football is the most popular sport in Tunisia. The Tunisia national football team, also known as "The Eagles of Carthage," won the 2004 African Cup of Nations (ACN), which was held in Tunisia.[192][193] They also represented Africa in the 2005 FIFA Cup of Confederations, which was held in Germany, but they could not go beyond the first round.
The premier football league is the "Tunisian Ligue Professionnelle 1". The main clubs are Espérance Sportive de Tunis, Étoile Sportive du Sahel, Club Africain, Club Sportif Sfaxien, Union Sportive Monastirienne, and ES Metlaoui.
The Tunisia men's national handball team has participated in several handball world championships. In 2005, Tunisia came fourth. The national league consists of about 12 teams, with ES. Sahel and Esperance S.Tunis dominating. The most famous Tunisian handball player is Wissem Hmam. In the 2005 Handball Championship in Tunis, Wissem Hmam was ranked as the top scorer of the tournament. The Tunisian national handball team won the African Cup ten times, being the team dominating this competition. The Tunisians won the 2018 African Cup in Gabon by defeating Egypt.[194]
Tunisia's national basketball team has emerged as a top side in Africa. The team won the 2011 Afrobasket and hosted Africa's top basketball event in 1965, 1987 and 2015. Tunisia was one of the continent's pioneers in basketball as it established one of the Africa's first competitive leagues.[195]
In boxing, Victor Perez ("Young") was world champion in the flyweight weight class in 1931 and 1932.[196]
In the 2008 Summer Olympics, Tunisian Oussama Mellouli won a gold medal in 1500 meter freestyle.[197] In the 2012 Summer Olympics, he won a bronze medal in the 1500 meter freestyle and a gold medal in the Men's marathon swim at a distance of 10 kilometers.
In 2012, Tunisia participated for the seventh time in her history in the Summer Paralympic Games. She finished the competition with 19 medals; 9 golds, 5 silvers and 5 bronzes. Tunisia was classified 14th on the Paralympics medal table and 5th in Athletics.
Tunisia was suspended from Davis Cup play for the year 2014, because the Tunisian Tennis Federation was found to have ordered Malek Jaziri not to compete against an Israeli tennis player, Amir Weintraub.[198] ITF president Francesco Ricci Bitti said: "There is no room for prejudice of any kind in sport or in society. The ITF Board decided to send a strong message to the Tunisian Tennis Federation that this kind of action will not be tolerated."[198]
Ver también
- Index of Tunisia-related articles
- Outline of Tunisia
Referencias
- Notes
- ^ Pronunciation: UK: /tjuːˈnɪziə, -ˈnɪs-/, US: /-ˈniːʒə, -ˈniːʃə, -ˈnɪʒə, -ˈnɪʃə/;[18] Arabic: تونس Tūnis; Berber: Tunest, ; French: Tunisie.
- ^ Arabic: الجمهورية التونسية al-Jumhūrīya at-Tūnisīya; French: République tunisienne)
- ^ Lebanon and Iraq are confessional democracies.
- References
- ^ "Tunisia Constitution, Article 4" (PDF). 26 January 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 February 2014. Retrieved 10 February 2014.
- ^ "Tunisian Constitution, Article 1" (PDF). 26 January 2014. Archived from the original (PDF) on 9 February 2014. Retrieved 10 February 2014. Translation by the University of Bern: "Tunisia is a free State, independent and sovereign; its religion is the Islam, its language is Arabic, and its form is the Republic."
- ^ Arabic, Tunisian Spoken. Ethnologue (19 February 1999). Retrieved on 5 September 2015.
- ^ "Tamazight language". Encyclopædia Britannica.
- ^ "Nawaat – Interview avec l' Association Tunisienne de Culture Amazighe". Nawaat.
- ^ Gabsi, Z. (2003). An outline of the Shilha (Berber) vernacular of Douiret (Southern Tunisia). PhD Thesis, Western Sydney University.
- ^ "Tunisian Amazigh and the Fight for Recognition – Tunisialive". Tunisialive. Archived from the original on 18 October 2011.
- ^ Fadhlaoui-Zid, Karima; Martinez-Cruz, Begoña; Khodjet-el-khil, Houssein; Mendizabal, Isabel; Benammar-Elgaaied, Amel; Comas, David (October 2011). "Genetic structure of Tunisian ethnic groups revealed by paternal lineages". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 146 (2): 271–280. doi:10.1002/ajpa.21581. PMID 21915847.
- ^ "Tunisia" (PDF). International Religious Freedom Report for 2011, United States Department of State – Bureau of Democracy Human Rights and Labor.
- ^ "The Constitution of the Tunisian Republic" (PDF). constitutionnet.org. Retrieved 29 October 2017.
- ^ Frosini, Justin; Biagi, Francesco (2014). Political and Constitutional Transitions in North Africa: Actors and Factors. Routledge. p. 4. ISBN 978-1-317-59745-2.
- ^ Choudhry, Sujit; Stacey, Richard (2014) "Semi-presidential government in Tunisia and Egypt". International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance. Retrieved 7 January 2016.
- ^ "National Institute of Statistics-Tunisia". National Institute of Statistics-Tunisia. Archived from the original on 28 November 2019. Retrieved 2 March 2020.
- ^ a b c d "Tunisia". International Monetary Fund.
- ^ "GINI index". World Bank. Retrieved 19 January 2013.
- ^ Human Development Report 2020 The Next Frontier: Human Development and the Anthropocene (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 15 December 2020. pp. 343–346. ISBN 978-92-1-126442-5. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
- ^ "Report on the Delegation of تونس". Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers. 2010. Archived from the original on 31 May 2012. Retrieved 8 November 2010.
- ^ Wells, John C. (2008), Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.), Longman, ISBN 9781405881180
- ^ "Tunisie : les législatives fixées au 26 octobre et la présidentielle au 23 novembre". Jeune Afrique. 25 June 2014.
- ^ "Tunisia holds first post-revolution presidential poll". BBC News. 23 November 2014.
- ^ "Tunisia | Country report | Freedom in the World | 2020". freedomhouse.org. 2020. Retrieved 30 April 2020.
- ^ "Democracy Index 2018". The Economist. Retrieved 30 December 2019.
- ^ Tunisie – France-Diplomatie – Ministère des Affaires étrangères et du Développement international. Diplomatie.gouv.fr. Retrieved on 5 September 2015.
- ^ (in French) Pourquoi l'Italie de Matteo Renzi se tourne vers la Tunisie avant l'Europe | JOL Journalism Online Press Archived 10 August 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Jolpress.com (28 February 2014). Retrieved on 5 September 2015.
- ^ Ghanmi, Monia (12 September 2014) "La Tunisie renforce ses relations avec l'Italie". Magharebia
- ^ a b c Room, Adrian (2006). Placenames of the World: Origins and Meanings of the Names for 6,600 Countries, Cities, Territories, Natural Features, and Historic Sites. McFarland. p. 385. ISBN 978-0-7864-2248-7.
- ^ Rossi, Peter M.; White, Wayne Edward (1980). Articles on the Middle East, 1947–1971: A Cumulation of the Bibliographies from the Middle East Journal. Pierian Press, University of Michigan. p. 132.
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enlaces externos
- Official Tunisia Government website
- Official website of the Ministry of Tourism
- Official Tourism Portal
- Official website of the National Institute of Meteorology
- Official website of the Assembly of the Representatives of the People
- Official website of the Tunisian Ministry of the Interior
- Official website of The Ministry of Transport
- Tunisia Profile from UNESCO
- Tunisia. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
- The Emergence and activity of Tunisia's most fearful terrorist group, 137–150.
- Tunisia web resources provided by GovPubs at the University of Colorado Boulder Libraries
- Tunisia at Curlie
- Tunisia profile from BBC News.
- Wikimedia Atlas of Tunisia
- Geographic data related to Tunisia at OpenStreetMap
- EU Neighbourhood Info Centre: Country profile of Tunisia
Coordinates: 34°N 9°E / 34°N 9°E / 34; 9