Los judíos españoles y portugueses , también llamados sefardíes occidentales , judíos ibéricos o judíos peninsulares son un subgrupo distintivo de judíos sefardíes que en gran parte descienden de judíos que vivieron como nuevos cristianos en la Península Ibérica durante las generaciones inmediatas que siguieron a la expulsión forzada de los inconversos. Judíos de España en 1492 y de Portugal en 1497 .
Idiomas | |
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Judeo-portugués , judeo-español , más tarde inglés , holandés , bajo alemán | |
Religión | |
judaísmo | |
Grupos étnicos relacionados | |
otros judíos sefardíes , otros judíos y bnei anusim sefardíes |
Aunque las expulsiones de 1492 y 1497 de judíos no convertidos de España y Portugal fueron eventos separados de las Inquisiciones española y portuguesa (que se establecieron más de una década antes en 1478), finalmente estuvieron vinculadas, ya que la Inquisición finalmente también llevó a la huida de Iberia de muchos descendientes de judíos conversos al catolicismo en generaciones posteriores.
A pesar de que los Edictos de Expulsión originales no se aplicaban a los nuevos conversos cristianos de origen judío, ya que ahora eran legalmente cristianos, las prácticas discriminatorias que, sin embargo, la Inquisición les imponía, que a menudo eran letales [ cita requerida ] , ejercieron una inmensa presión sobre muchos de los cristianos de origen judío a emigrar también fuera de España y Portugal en las generaciones inmediatas que siguieron a la expulsión de sus hermanos judíos no convertidos.
El Decreto de la Alhambra (también conocido como Edicto de Expulsión) fue un edicto emitido el 31 de marzo de 1492, por los Reyes Católicos conjuntos de España ( Isabel I de Castilla y Fernando II de Aragón ) ordenando la expulsión de todos los judíos practicantes no convertidos de los Reinos. de Castilla y Aragón , incluidos todos sus territorios y posesiones, a más tardar el 31 de julio de ese año. [1] El propósito principal de la expulsión era eliminar la influencia de los judíos no convertidos en la entonces numerosa población española converso nueva cristiana de origen judío , para asegurar que el prior no alentara a estos últimos a recaer y volver al judaísmo.
Más de la mitad de la población de origen judío de España se había convertido al catolicismo como resultado de la persecución religiosa antijudía y los pogromos que ocurrieron en 1391. Como resultado del decreto de la Alhambra y la persecución en años anteriores, se estima que el origen judío total de España población en ese momento, más de 200.000 judíos se convirtieron al catolicismo, y permanecieron inicialmente en España. Entre 40.000 y 80.000 no se convirtieron al catolicismo, y por su firme compromiso de seguir siendo judíos fueron expulsados. De los que fueron expulsados como judíos no convertidos, un número indeterminado se convirtió al catolicismo una vez fuera de España y finalmente regresó a España en los años posteriores a la expulsión [2] debido a las dificultades que muchos experimentaron en su reasentamiento. Muchos de los judíos de España que dejaron España como judíos también se trasladaron inicialmente a Portugal, donde posteriormente se convirtieron a la fuerza a la Iglesia católica en 1497.
La mayoría de los judíos que dejaron España como judíos aceptaron la hospitalidad del sultán Bayezid II y, tras el Decreto de la Alhambra, se trasladaron al Imperio Otomano , [3] donde fundaron comunidades que practicaban abiertamente la religión judía; ellos y sus descendientes se conocen como sefardíes orientales .
Durante los siglos siguientes [4] a los decretos español y portugués, algunos de los nuevos conversos cristianos de origen judío comenzaron a emigrar de Portugal y España, asentándose hasta el siglo XVIII en áreas de Europa Occidental y reinos no ibéricos de las Américas coloniales (en su mayoría holandeses). reinos, incluidos Curazao en las Indias Occidentales Holandesas, Recife en las áreas holandesas del Brasil colonial que finalmente fueron recuperadas por los portugueses, y Nueva Amsterdam que más tarde se convirtió en Nueva York ) formando comunidades y volviendo formalmente al judaísmo. Es el colectivo de estas comunidades y sus descendientes que se conocen como sefardíes occidentales , y son el tema de este artículo.
Como los primeros miembros de los sefardíes occidentales consistían en personas que ellos mismos (o cuyos antepasados inmediatos) experimentaron personalmente un período interino como nuevos cristianos, lo que resultó en incesantes juicios y persecuciones del criptojudaísmo por parte de las Inquisiciones portuguesa y española , la comunidad primitiva continuó aumentará con la emigración de nuevos cristianos que salieron de la Península Ibérica en un flujo continuo entre los años 1600 y 1700. Los nuevos cristianos de origen judío eran oficialmente considerados cristianos debido a sus conversiones forzadas o coaccionadas; como tales, estaban sujetos a la jurisdicción del sistema inquisitorial de la Iglesia Católica, y estaban sujetos a duras leyes de herejía y apostasía si continuaban practicando su fe judía ancestral. Aquellos nuevos cristianos que finalmente huyeron tanto de la esfera cultural ibérica como de la jurisdicción de la Inquisición pudieron regresar oficialmente al judaísmo y abrir la práctica judía una vez que estuvieron en sus nuevos entornos tolerantes de refugio.
Como ex conversos o sus descendientes, los sefardíes occidentales desarrollaron un ritual distintivo basado en los restos del judaísmo de la España anterior a la expulsión, que algunos habían practicado en secreto durante su tiempo como nuevos cristianos, e influenciado por el judaísmo practicado por las comunidades (incluyendo Judíos sefardíes del Imperio Otomano y judíos asquenazíes ) que les ayudaron en su readaptación del judaísmo normativo; así como por los ritos hispano-marroquí e italiano judíos practicados por rabinos y hazzanim reclutados de esas comunidades para instruirlos en la práctica ritual. Una parte de su carácter distintivo como grupo judío, además, proviene del hecho de que se vieron obligados a "redefinir su identidad judía y marcar sus límites [...] con las herramientas intelectuales que habían adquirido en su socialización cristiana" [ 5] durante su tiempo como conversos cristianos nuevos.
Terminología
Las principales comunidades de 'judíos sefardíes occidentales' se desarrollaron en Europa occidental, Italia y las regiones no ibéricas de América.
Además del término "sefardíes occidentales", este subgrupo de judíos sefardíes a veces también se conoce como "judíos españoles y portugueses", "judíos españoles", "judíos portugueses" o "judíos de la nación portuguesa".
El término "sefardíes occidentales" se utiliza con frecuencia en la literatura de investigación moderna para referirse a "judíos españoles y portugueses", pero a veces también a " judíos hispano- marroquíes ".
El uso de los términos "judíos portugueses" y "judíos de la nación portuguesa" en áreas como los Países Bajos , Hamburgo , Escandinavia , y en algún momento en Londres , parece haber surgido principalmente como una forma para los "judíos españoles y portugueses "distanciarse de España en los tiempos de tensión política y guerra entre España y Holanda en el siglo XVII. Consideraciones similares pueden haber jugado un papel para los judíos étnicos sefardíes en las regiones francesas de Bayona y Burdeos , dada su proximidad a la frontera española.
Otra razón para la terminología de los judíos "portugueses" puede haber sido que una proporción relativamente alta de las familias en cuestión tenían a Portugal como su punto de partida inmediato de la península ibérica, independientemente de si el origen familiar más remoto era español, ya que Portugal era primer lugar de refugio y tránsito de muchos judíos españoles inmediatamente después de su expulsión de España.
Como el término "sefardíes" (cuando se usa en su sentido étnico) necesariamente connota un vínculo con España, el rasgo distintivo del subgrupo occidental fue el vínculo agregado con Portugal. Por lo tanto, como un subconjunto de los sefardíes, "portugués" y "español y portugués" podrían usarse indistintamente. Por último, casi todas las comunidades organizadas de este grupo empleaban tradicionalmente el portugués en lugar del español como idioma oficial o de trabajo.
En Italia , el término "judíos españoles" ( Ebrei Spagnoli ) se utiliza con frecuencia, pero incluye a los descendientes de judíos expulsados como judíos del Reino de Nápoles , así como a los "judíos españoles y portugueses" propiamente dichos (es decir, judíos descendientes de ex conversos y sus descendientes).
En Venecia , los judíos españoles y portugueses a menudo se describían como "ponntinos" (occidentales), para distinguirlos de los sefardíes "levantinos" (orientales) de las áreas del Mediterráneo oriental. Ocasionalmente, los judíos italianos distinguen entre los "judíos portugueses" de Pisa y Livorno y los "judíos españoles" de Venecia, Módena y otros lugares.
El erudito Joseph Dan distingue a los "sefardíes medievales" (exiliados españoles de los siglos XV y XVI en el Imperio Otomano que llegaron como judíos) de los "sefardíes renacentistas" (antiguas comunidades converso españolas y portuguesas que llegaron como nuevos cristianos), en referencia a las respectivas tiempos de los contactos formativos de cada agrupación con la lengua y la cultura españolas.
Relación con otras comunidades sefardíes
El término sefardí significa "español" o "hispano", y se deriva de Sefarad , un lugar bíblico. Se discute la ubicación del Sefarad bíblico, pero los judíos posteriores identificaron Sefarad como Hispania , es decir, la Península Ibérica . Sefarad todavía significa "España" en hebreo moderno .
La relación entre las comunidades descendientes de sefardíes se ilustra en el siguiente diagrama :
Población judía sefardí de Iberia antes de la expulsión | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Decreto de la Alhambra española de 1492, Decreto portugués de 1497 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Exilio ibérico a finales del siglo XV | Conversión al catolicismo hasta finales del siglo XV | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Sefardíes del norte de África | Sefardíes orientales | Anusim sefardí | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Aquellos judíos que huyeron de Iberia como judíos a finales del siglo XV con la emisión de los decretos de expulsión de España y Portugal. Establecido inicialmente en el norte de África . | Aquellos judíos que huyeron de Iberia como judíos a finales del siglo XV con la emisión de los decretos de expulsión de España y Portugal. Inicialmente asentado en el Mediterráneo Oriental y más allá. | Aquellos judíos en España y Portugal que, en un esfuerzo por retrasar o evitar su expulsión (y en la mayoría de los casos en Portugal, en un esfuerzo de Manuel I de Portugal para evitar que los judíos elijan la opción del exilio), se ven obligados o coaccionados a convertirse al catolicismo hasta finales del siglo XV, al vencimiento del plazo para su expulsión, conversión o ejecución según lo establecido en los decretos. Se hicieron conversos / nuevos cristianos / marranos en Iberia. Como cristianos, estaban bajo la jurisdicción de la Iglesia Católica y sujetos a la Inquisición española. | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Migración de conversos de los siglos XVI al XVIII | Migración clandestina de conversos a Iberoamérica y su asentamiento durante la colonización de los siglos XVI al XVIII | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Reversión al judaísmo de los siglos XVI al XVIII | Extensión de la Inquisición a Iberoamérica en el siglo XVI | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Sefardíes occidentales | Sefardí Bnei Anusim | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Las primeras generaciones de descendientes de sefardíes anusim que emigraron como conversos fuera de Iberia (a regiones más allá del ámbito cultural ibérico ) entre los siglos XVI al XVIII donde luego volvieron al judaísmo. Radicado inicialmente en Holanda, Londres , Italia , etc. | Los descendientes de la generación posterior de Anusim sefardíes que permanecieron, como conversos, en la Península Ibérica o se trasladaron a las posesiones coloniales ibéricas en varios países de América Latina durante la colonización española de las Américas . Sujeto a la Inquisición hasta su abolición en el siglo XIX. | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Abolición de la Inquisición en el siglo XIX | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Reversión al judaísmo en los siglos XX al XXI | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
Sefardíes neo-occidentales | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
La naciente y creciente población de retornados al judaísmo entre la población sefardí bnei anusim cuyo reciente retorno comenzó a finales del siglo XX y principios del XXI en Iberia e Iberoamérica . | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
"Sefardíes" se refiere propiamente a todos los judíos cuyas familias tienen una larga historia en España y Portugal , en contraste con los judíos asquenazíes y todas las demás divisiones étnicas judías . Sin embargo, los judíos de Mizrahi , que tienen historias extendidas en el Gran Medio Oriente y el norte de África, a menudo se les llama "sefardíes" de manera más amplia en el lenguaje coloquial y religioso debido a estilos similares de liturgia y una cierta cantidad de matrimonios mixtos entre ellos y sefardíes propiamente dichos.
El principal factor que distingue a los "judíos españoles y portugueses" (sefardíes occidentales) de otros "sefardíes propiamente dichos" es que "judíos españoles y portugueses" se refiere específicamente a aquellos judíos que descienden de personas cuya historia como miembros practicantes de comunidades judías con orígenes en la península ibérica. península fue interrumpida por un período de haber sido nuevos cristianos (también conocidos como conversos , el término español para "conversos" al catolicismo; o cristãos-novos , "nuevos cristianos" en el equivalente portugués) o anusim (hebreo para los "forzados" convertir del judaísmo a otra fe).
Durante su período como cristianos nuevos, muchos conversos continuaron practicando su fe judía en secreto lo mejor que pudieron. Aquellos nuevos conversos cristianos de origen judío que mantenían prácticas cripto-judías en secreto fueron denominados marranos ("puercos" españoles ) por los españoles y portugueses cristianos viejos .
Por el contrario, aquellos conversos nuevos cristianos que han permanecido como conversos desde entonces, tanto los de la Península Ibérica como los que se mudaron a las posesiones coloniales ibéricas durante la colonización española de las Américas , se convirtieron en los bnei anusim sefardíes emparentados . Los bnei anusim sefardíes son los descendientes contemporáneos y en gran parte nominalmente cristianos de los anusim sefardíes asimilados del siglo XV, y en la actualidad son un subgrupo totalmente asimilado dentro de las poblaciones cristianas de origen ibérico de España, Portugal, América hispana y Brasil . Por razones y circunstancias históricas, los sefardíes Bnei Ansuim no han regresado a la fe judía durante los últimos cinco siglos, [6] En los tiempos modernos, algunos han comenzado a emerger públicamente en números crecientes, especialmente en las últimas dos décadas.
Para los "judíos españoles y portugueses" (sefardíes occidentales), su período histórico como conversos ha dado forma a su identidad, cultura y prácticas. En este sentido, se distinguen claramente de aquellos sefardíes que descienden de los judíos que dejaron Iberia como judíos antes de la fecha de vencimiento del Decreto de la Alhambra , que tuvo como resultado la expulsión de España en 1492 y la expulsión de Portugal en 1497 de todos los judíos que no habían sido bautizados. en la fe católica. Estos judíos expulsados se asentaron principalmente alrededor de la cuenca mediterránea del sur de Europa , el norte de África y el Medio Oriente, a saber, Salónica , los Balcanes y Turquía , y se convirtieron en sefardíes del este y sefardíes del norte de África, respectivamente. Durante siglos, las comunidades judías sefardíes bajo el dominio otomano proporcionaron liderazgo espiritual a los sefardíes dispersos a través de sus contribuciones a la literatura Responsa . [7] [8] [9] Estas comunidades sefardíes ofrecieron refugio a todos los judíos, incluidos los nuevos conversos cristianos de origen judío sefardí que huían de la Inquisición por toda Europa, así como a sus correligionarios asquenazíes de Europa del Este que huían de los pogromos.
Relación con los sefardíes bnei anusim y los sefardíes neo-occidentales
La característica común que comparten los sefardíes occidentales ("judíos españoles y portugueses") con los sefardíes bnei anusim y los sefardíes neo-occidentales es que los tres descienden de conversos. Los "sefardíes occidentales" son descendientes de antiguos conversos de siglos anteriores; "Sefardíes Bnei Anusim" son los descendientes de conversos todavía nominalmente cristianos; y los "sefardíes neo-occidentales" son el número cada vez mayor de antiguos conversos que actualmente regresan al judaísmo de entre la población sefardí bnei anusim.
El factor distintivo entre los "sefardíes occidentales" y los nacientes "sefardíes neo-occidentales" es el marco temporal de las reversiones al judaísmo, la ubicación de las reversiones y las precarias circunstancias religiosas y legales que rodean sus reversiones, incluidos impedimentos y persecuciones. Así, los descendientes conversos que se convirtieron en los sefardíes occidentales habían vuelto al judaísmo entre los siglos XVI y XVIII, lo hicieron en un momento antes de la abolición de la Inquisición en el siglo XIX, y este período de tiempo requirió su migración fuera de la cultura ibérica. esfera. Por el contrario, los descendientes conversos que hoy se están convirtiendo en los nacientes sefardíes neo-occidentales han estado volviendo al judaísmo entre finales del siglo XX y principios del XXI, lo han estado haciendo en un momento posterior a la abolición de la Inquisición en el siglo XIX, y esto El marco temporal no ha hecho necesaria su migración fuera del ámbito cultural ibérico.
Aunque las comunidades judías se restablecieron en España y Portugal a finales del siglo XIX y principios del XX, en gran parte con la ayuda de comunidades de judíos españoles y portugueses como la de Londres, estos judíos actuales en Portugal y judíos en España son distintos. de los "judíos españoles y portugueses" como, en su mayor parte, las comunidades judías modernas residentes en España y Portugal, también incluyen otras divisiones étnicas judías recién inmigradas a España y Portugal, como los judíos asquenazíes del norte de Europa.
En la Iberia moderna, los judíos practicantes de origen sefardí, como la comunidad judía de Oporto , sin embargo, tampoco son sefardíes occidentales, sino sefardíes neooccidentales, ya que se restablecieron en el siglo XX y principios del siglo XXI con una campaña. de alcance a los cripto-judíos de origen sefardí Bnei Anusim. El regreso de la comunidad de Oporto al judaísmo fue liderado por el retornado al judaísmo Capitán Artur Carlos de Barros Basto (1887-1961), también conocido como el "apóstol de los marranos". En 1921, al darse cuenta de que había menos de veinte judíos asquenazíes viviendo en Oporto, y que los recientes retornados al judaísmo como él no estaban organizados y tenían que viajar a Lisboa por motivos religiosos siempre que fuera necesario, Barros Basto comenzó a pensar en la construcción de una sinagoga y tomó iniciativa en 1923 para registrar oficialmente la Comunidad Judía de Oporto y el Centro Teológico Israelita en el ayuntamiento de Oporto. Como se mencionó, estas comunidades de retornados modernos al judaísmo se encuentran entre las primeras en el surgimiento de los nacientes sefardíes neo-occidentales. Los sefardíes neo-occidentales son los retornados modernos al judaísmo en toda Iberia e Iberoamérica que emergen de entre la población de sefardíes bnei anusim, y son distintos de los sefardíes occidentales (los denominados "judíos españoles y portugueses").
Ejemplos incluso más recientes de tales comunidades sefardíes neo-occidentales incluyen a los judíos de Belmonte en Portugal y a los xuetes de España. En el caso de los Xuetes, a toda la comunidad de descendientes conversos se les otorgó un reconocimiento general como judíos por parte de las autoridades rabínicas en Israel debido a sus circunstancias históricas particulares en la isla, lo que efectivamente resultó en un estricto aislamiento social de los Xuetes impuesto por sus habitantes. vecinos de ascendencia no judía hasta los tiempos modernos. [10]
En los últimos cinco a diez años, "se han establecido grupos organizados de Benei Anusim [sefardíes] en Brasil , Colombia , Costa Rica , Chile , Ecuador , México , Puerto Rico , Venezuela y en la propia Sefarad [Península Ibérica]". [11] también se han establecido ahora. Algunos miembros de estas comunidades han vuelto formalmente al judaísmo .
Historia
En España y Portugal
Los judíos españoles y portugueses descendían originalmente de conversos cristianos nuevos (es decir, judíos convertidos al cristianismo católico romano) cuyos descendientes abandonaron la península ibérica y volvieron al judaísmo.
Si bien cuenta la leyenda que los conversos existieron ya en la época visigoda, y que hubo un fenómeno continuo del criptojudaísmo desde esa época que perdura a lo largo de la historia española, este escenario es improbable, ya que en la época musulmana de Iberia no hubo ventaja en pasar como cristiano en lugar de reconocer públicamente que uno era judío. La principal ola de conversiones, a menudo forzadas, siguió a La Masacre de 1391 en España. Las definiciones legales de esa época reconocían teóricamente que un bautismo forzado no era un sacramento válido, pero la Iglesia lo limitaba a los casos en los que se administraba literalmente por la fuerza física: una persona que había consentido en el bautismo bajo amenaza de muerte o lesiones graves todavía se consideraba como un converso voluntario y, en consecuencia, se le prohíbe volver al judaísmo. [12] El criptojudaísmo como fenómeno a gran escala data principalmente de esa época.
Los conversos, cualesquiera que sean sus opiniones religiosas reales, a menudo (pero no siempre) tienden a casarse y asociarse entre ellos. A medida que alcanzaron posiciones prominentes en el comercio y en la administración real, atrajeron un resentimiento considerable de los " cristianos viejos ". La razón aparente dada para la emisión del Decreto de la Alhambra de 1492 para la conversión, expulsión o ejecución de los judíos inconversos de España fue que los judíos inconversos habían apoyado a los conversos nuevos cristianos en las prácticas criptojudías de estos últimos, retrasando o impidiendo su asimilación a la comunidad cristiana.
Después de la emisión del Decreto de la Alhambra de España en 1492, una gran proporción de los judíos inconversos eligieron el exilio en lugar de la conversión, muchos de ellos cruzando la frontera con Portugal. En Portugal, sin embargo, los judíos recibieron nuevamente un decreto similar solo unos años más tarde en 1497, dándoles la opción de exilio o conversión. Sin embargo, a diferencia de España, en la práctica real Portugal les impidió irse, por lo que necesariamente se quedaron como conversos ostensibles al cristianismo, lo quisieran o no, después de que el rey portugués razonara que al no irse aceptaban el cristianismo por defecto. Por esta razón, el criptojudaísmo prevalecía mucho más en Portugal que en España, a pesar de que muchas de estas familias eran originalmente de ascendencia española en lugar de portuguesa. Sin embargo, con el tiempo, la mayoría de los criptojudíos, tanto de ascendencia española como portuguesa, habían abandonado Portugal en el siglo XVIII.
Criptojudaísmo
Los eruditos todavía están divididos sobre las lealtades religiosas típicas de los conversos, en particular sobre si se les describe apropiadamente como "criptojudíos". Dado el secretismo que rodea a su situación, la pregunta no es fácil de responder: probablemente los propios conversos estaban divididos, y podrían ubicarse en diferentes puntos entre las posibles posiciones. Los perfiles sugeridos son los siguientes:
- Cristianos sinceros, que seguían siendo objeto de discriminación y acusaciones de judaización por parte de la Inquisición; algunos de ellos apelaron al Papa y buscaron refugio en los Estados Pontificios. [13]
- Aquellos que honestamente habían hecho todo lo posible por vivir como cristianos, pero que, al descubrir que aún no eran aceptados socialmente y aún sospechosos de judaizar, concibieron dudas intelectuales sobre el tema y decidieron probar el judaísmo, con el razonamiento de que la sospecha crea lo que crea. sospechosos. [14]
- Criptojudíos genuinos, que consideraban que sus conversiones eran forzadas y se conformaban a regañadientes con el catolicismo hasta que encontraron la primera oportunidad de vivir una vida judía abierta. [15]
- "Viajeros culturales" oportunistas cuyas opiniones privadas pueden haber sido bastante escépticas y que se ajustaban a la forma local de judaísmo o cristianismo dependiendo de dónde se encontraran en ese momento. [16] [17]
Por estas razones, hubo un flujo continuo de personas que salían de España y Portugal (principalmente Portugal) hacia lugares donde podían practicar el judaísmo abiertamente, desde 1492 hasta finales del siglo XVIII. Fueron generalmente aceptados por las comunidades judías anfitrionas como anusim (conversos forzados), cuya conversión, al ser involuntaria, no comprometió su estatus judío.
Los conversos de la primera generación después de la expulsión todavía tenían algún conocimiento del judaísmo basado en el recuerdo del contacto con una comunidad judía viva. En generaciones posteriores, la gente tuvo que evitar prácticas judías conocidas que pudieran atraer atención no deseada: los conversos del grupo 3 desarrollaron un judaísmo casero con prácticas propias, mientras que los del grupo 2 tenían una concepción puramente intelectual del judaísmo basada en su lectura de antiguas fuentes judías conservadas por la Iglesia como la Vulgata del Antiguo Testamento , los Apócrifos , Filón y Josefo . Por lo tanto, ambos grupos necesitaron una extensa reeducación en el judaísmo después de llegar a sus lugares de refugio fuera de la península. Esto se logró con la ayuda de
- Sefardíes que viven en Italia (y, en menor medida, judíos italianos propiamente dichos );
- 1492 exiliados afincados en Marruecos, herederos inmediatos de la tradición judía andalusí ;
- especialmente en Holanda y Alemania, judíos asquenazíes.
Ceuta y Melilla
Aún existen comunidades judías en los enclaves norteafricanos de Ceuta y Melilla . Estos lugares, aunque tratados en la mayoría de los aspectos como partes integrantes de España, escaparon de la Inquisición y la expulsión, por lo que estas comunidades se consideran a sí mismas como el remanente de la judería española previa a la expulsión.
En Italia
Como las comunidades judías sefardíes se establecieron en el centro y norte de Italia, tras la expulsión de los judíos de España en 1492 y del Reino de Nápoles en 1533, estas áreas eran un destino obvio para los conversos que deseaban abandonar España y Portugal. La similitud del idioma italiano con el español fue otro atractivo. Dado su trasfondo cultural cristiano y su alto nivel de educación al estilo europeo, era menos probable que los nuevos emigrantes siguieran el ejemplo de los expulsados de 1492 al establecerse en el Imperio Otomano, donde se requeriría un cambio cultural completo. [18]
En cambio, en Italia corrían el riesgo de ser procesados por judaizar, dado que en derecho eran cristianos bautizados; por esta razón, generalmente evitaban los Estados Pontificios. Los Papas permitieron algún asentamiento hispano-judío en Ancona , ya que este era el principal puerto para el comercio de Turquía , en el que sus vínculos con los otomanos sefardíes eran útiles. Otros estados encontraron ventajoso permitir que los conversos se establecieran y se mezclaran con las comunidades judías existentes, y hacer la vista gorda a su estatus religioso. En la próxima generación, los hijos de conversos podrían criarse como completamente judíos sin ningún problema legal, ya que nunca habían sido bautizados.
Los principales lugares de asentamiento fueron los siguientes:
- La República de Venecia a menudo había tensado las relaciones con el papado. También estaban conscientes de las ventajas comerciales que ofrecía la presencia de judíos de habla hispana educados, especialmente para el comercio con Turquía. Anteriormente, los judíos de Venecia eran tolerados por estatutos por un período fijo de años, renovados periódicamente. A principios del siglo XVI, estos arreglos se hicieron permanentes y se otorgó una carta separada a la comunidad "Ponentine" (occidental). Casi al mismo tiempo, el estado requería que los judíos vivieran en el gueto veneciano recién establecido . Sin embargo, durante mucho tiempo, la República de Venecia fue considerada como el estado más acogedor para los judíos, equivalente a los Países Bajos en el siglo XVII o los Estados Unidos en el siglo XX.
- La inmigración sefardí también fue alentada por la Casa de Este en sus posesiones de Reggio , Modena y Ferrara . En 1598, Ferrara fue recuperada por los Estados Pontificios, lo que provocó la emigración judía de allí.
- En 1593, Ferdinando I de 'Medici, Gran Duque de Toscana , concedió a judíos españoles y portugueses cartas para vivir y comerciar en Pisa y Livorno .
En general, los judíos españoles y portugueses permanecieron separados de los judíos nativos de rito italiano , aunque hubo una considerable influencia religiosa e intelectual mutua entre los grupos. En una ciudad determinada, a menudo había una "sinagoga italiana" y una "sinagoga española", y ocasionalmente también una "sinagoga alemana". Muchas de estas sinagogas se han fusionado desde entonces, pero la diversidad de ritos sobrevivió en la Italia moderna.
La Sinagoga Española ( Scola Spagnola ) de Venecia fue originalmente considerada como la "sinagoga madre" para la comunidad española y portuguesa en todo el mundo, ya que fue una de las primeras en establecerse, y el primer libro de oraciones se publicó allí. Las comunidades posteriores, como en Amsterdam, siguieron su ejemplo en cuestiones rituales. Con el declive de la importancia de Venecia en el siglo XVIII, el papel principal pasó a Livorno (para Italia y el Mediterráneo) y Amsterdam (para los países occidentales). Desafortunadamente, la sinagoga de Livorno, considerada el edificio más importante de la ciudad, fue destruida en la Segunda Guerra Mundial: se erigió un edificio moderno en el mismo sitio en 1958-1962.
Muchos comerciantes mantuvieron presencia tanto en Italia como en países del Imperio Otomano, e incluso aquellos que se establecieron permanentemente en el Imperio Otomano conservaron su nacionalidad toscana u otra italiana, para poder beneficiarse de las capitulaciones del Imperio Otomano . Así, en Túnez había una comunidad de Juifs Portugais , o L'Grana (Livornese), separada de los judíos nativos de Túnez ( Tuansa ) y que se consideraba superior a ellos . En otros países, como Siria, existían comunidades más pequeñas del mismo tipo, donde se les conocía como Señores Francos . Por lo general, no eran lo suficientemente numerosos como para establecer sus propias sinagogas, sino que se reunían para orar en las casas de los demás.
En Francia
En el siglo XVI y principios del XVII, los conversos también buscaban refugio más allá de los Pirineos , instalándose en Francia en Saint-Jean-de-Luz , Tarbes , Bayona , Burdeos , Marsella y Montpellier . Vivían aparentemente como cristianos; fueron casados por sacerdotes católicos; bautizaron a sus hijos y fingieron públicamente ser católicos. En secreto, sin embargo, circuncidaron a sus hijos, guardaron el Shabat y los días festivos lo mejor que pudieron y oraron juntos.
Enrique III de Francia confirmó los privilegios otorgados por Enrique II de Francia y los protegió contra las acusaciones. Bajo Luis XIII de Francia , los conversos de Bayona fueron asignados al suburbio de Saint-Esprit . En Saint-Esprit, así como en Peyrehorade, Bidache, Orthez , Biarritz y Saint-Jean-de-Luz , gradualmente confesaron abiertamente el judaísmo. En 1640, varios cientos de conversos, considerados judíos, vivían en Saint-Jean-de-Luz; y existía una sinagoga en Saint-Esprit ya en 1660.
En la Francia prerrevolucionaria, los judíos portugueses eran una de las tres comunidades judías toleradas, los otros dos eran los judíos asquenazíes de Alsacia-Lorena y los judíos del antiguo enclave papal de Comtat Venaissin ; los tres grupos se emanciparon en la Revolución Francesa . La tercera comunidad originalmente tenía su propio rito provenzal , pero adoptó el rito español y portugués poco después de la Revolución Francesa y la incorporación del Comtat Venaissin a Francia. Hoy en día todavía hay algunas comunidades españolas y portuguesas en Burdeos y Bayona, y una en París, pero en todas estas comunidades (y aún más entre los judíos franceses en general), los judíos españoles y portugueses supervivientes son superados en gran medida por los inmigrantes sefardíes recientes del norte de África. origen.
En los Paises Bajos
Durante la ocupación española de los Países Bajos, los comerciantes converso tenían una fuerte presencia comercial allí. Cuando la República Holandesa obtuvo su independencia en 1581, los holandeses mantuvieron vínculos comerciales con Portugal en lugar de España, ya que España era considerada una potencia hostil. Dado que había leyes penales contra los católicos, [19] y el catolicismo era considerado con mayor hostilidad que el judaísmo, los neerlandeses alentaron a los conversos cristianos nuevos (técnicamente católicos, ya que esa era la tradición cristiana a la que se vieron obligados) a "salir" abiertamente. como judíos. Dada la multiplicidad de sectas protestantes, Holanda fue el primer país del mundo occidental en establecer una política de tolerancia religiosa. Esto convirtió a Ámsterdam en un imán para los conversos que se marchaban de Portugal.
Originalmente había tres comunidades sefardíes: la primera, Beth Jacob , ya existía en 1610, y quizás ya en 1602; Neve Shalom fue fundada entre 1608 y 1612 por judíos de origen español. La tercera comunidad, Beth Israel , se estableció en 1618. Estas tres comunidades comenzaron a cooperar más estrechamente en 1622. Finalmente, en 1639, se fusionaron para formar Talmud Torah , la comunidad judía portuguesa de Amsterdam, que todavía existe hoy. La actual Sinagoga portuguesa , a veces conocida como "Amsterdam Esnoga", fue inaugurada en 1675, de la cual Abraham Cohen Pimentel era el rabino principal.
At first the Dutch conversos had little knowledge of Judaism and had to recruit rabbis and hazzanim from Italy, and occasionally Morocco and Salonica, to teach them. Later on Amsterdam became a centre of religious learning: a religious college Ets Haim was established, with a copious Jewish and general library. This library still exists. The transactions of the college, mainly in the form of responsa, were published in a periodical, Peri Ets Haim (see links below). There were formerly several Portuguese synagogues in other cities such as The Hague. Since the Nazi occupation of the Netherlands and destruction of Jews in the Second World War, the Amsterdam synagogue is the only remaining synagogue of the Portuguese rite in the Netherlands. It serves a membership of about 600. The synagogue at the Hague survived the war undamaged: it is now the Liberal Synagogue and no longer belongs to the "Portuguese" community.
The position of Jews in the Spanish Netherlands (modern Belgium) was rather different.[20] Considerable numbers of conversos lived there, in particular in Antwerp. The Inquisition was not allowed to operate. Nevertheless their practice of Judaism remained under cover and unofficial, as acts of Judaizing in Belgium could expose one to proceedings elsewhere in the Spanish possessions. Sporadic persecutions alternated with periods of unofficial toleration. The position improved somewhat in 1713, with the cession of the southern Netherlands to Austria, but no community was officially formed until the 19th century. There is a Portuguese synagogue in Antwerp; its members, like those of the Sephardic rite synagogues of Brussels, are now predominantly of North African origin, and few if any pre-War families or traditions remain.
In Germany, Northern Europe and Eastern Europe
There were Portuguese Jews living in Hamburg as early as the 1590s. Records attest to their having a small synagogue called Talmud Torah in 1627, and the main synagogue, Beth Israel, was founded in 1652. From the 18th century on, the Portuguese Jews were increasingly outnumbered by "German Jews" (Ashkenazim). By 1900, they were thought to number only about 400.
A small branch of the Portuguese community was located in Altona, with a congregation known as Neweh Schalom. Historically, however, the Jewish community of Altona was overwhelmingly Ashkenazi, as Altona belonged to the kingdom of Denmark, which permitted Jews of all communities to settle there when Hamburg proper still only admitted the Portuguese.
Spanish and Portuguese Jews had an intermittent trading presence in Norway until the early 19th century, and were granted full residence rights in 1844.[21] Today they have no separate organizational identity from the general (mainly Ashkenazi) Jewish community, though traditions survive in some families.
Around 1550, many Sephardi Jews travelled across Europe to find their haven in Poland, which had the largest Jewish population in the whole of Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries. For this reason there are still Polish Jewish surnames with a possible Spanish origin. However, most of them quickly assimilated into the Ashkenazi community and retained no separate identity.
In Britain
There were certainly Spanish and Portuguese merchants, many of them conversos, in England at the time of Queen Elizabeth I; one notable marrano was the physician Roderigo Lopez. In the time of Oliver Cromwell, Menasseh Ben Israel led a delegation seeking permission for Dutch Sephardim to settle in England: Cromwell was known to look favourably on the request, but no official act of permission has been found. By the time of Charles II and James II, a congregation of Spanish and Portuguese Jews had a synagogue in Creechurch Lane. Both these kings showed their assent to this situation by quashing indictments against the Jews for unlawful assembly.[22] For this reason the Spanish and Portuguese Jews of England often cite 1656 as the year of re-admission, but look to Charles II as the real sponsor of their community.
Bevis Marks Synagogue was opened in 1701 in London. In the 1830s and 40s there was agitation for the formation of a branch synagogue in the West End, nearer where most congregants lived, but rabbis refused this on the basis of Ascama 1, forbidding the establishment of other synagogues within six miles of Bevis Marks. Dissident congregants, together with some Ashkenazim, accordingly founded the West London Synagogue in Burton Street in 1841. An official branch synagogue in Wigmore Street was opened in 1853. This moved to Bryanston Street in the 1860s, and to Lauderdale Road in Maida Vale in 1896. A private synagogue existed in Islington from 1865 to 1884, and another in Highbury from 1885 to 1936. A third synagogue has been formed in Wembley. Over the centuries the community has absorbed many Sephardi immigrants from Italy and North Africa, including many of its rabbis and hazzanim. The current membership includes many Iraqi Jews and some Ashkenazim, in addition to descendants of the original families. The Wembley community is predominantly Egyptian.
The synagogues at Bevis Marks, Lauderdale Road and Wembley are all owned by the same community, formally known as Sahar Asamaim (Sha'ar ha-Shamayim), and have no separate organisational identities. The community is served by a team rabbinate: the post of Haham, or chief rabbi, is currently vacant (and has frequently been so in the community's history), the current head being known as the "Senior Rabbi". The day-to-day running of the community is the responsibility of a Mahamad, elected periodically and consisting of a number of parnasim (wardens) and one gabbay (treasurer). . Under the current Senior Rabbi, Joseph Dweck, the name of the community has been changed from "Congregation of Spanish and Portuguese Jews" to "S&P Sephardi Community".[23]
In addition to the three main synagogues, there is the Montefiore Synagogue at Ramsgate associated with the burial place of Moses Montefiore. A synagogue in Holland Park is described as "Spanish and Portuguese" but serves chiefly Greek and Turkish Jews, with a mixed ritual: it is connected to the main community by a Deed of Association. The Manchester Sephardic synagogues are under the superintendence of the London community and traditionally used a predominantly Spanish and Portuguese ritual, which is giving way to a Jerusalem Sephardic style: the membership is chiefly Syrian in heritage, with some Turkish, Iraqi and North African Jews. The London community formerly had oversight over some Baghdadi synagogues in the Far East, such as the Ohel Leah Synagogue in Hong Kong and Ohel Rachel Synagogue in Shanghai. An informal community using the Spanish and Portuguese rite, and known as the "Rambam Synagogue", exists in Elstree and a further minyan has been established in Hendon. Newer Sephardic rite synagogues in London, mostly for Baghdadi and Persian Jews, preserve their own ritual and do not come under the Spanish and Portuguese umbrella.
Like the Amsterdam community, the London Spanish and Portuguese community early set up a Medrash do Heshaim (Ets Haim). This is less a functioning religious college than a committee of dignitaries responsible for community publications, such as prayer books.[24] In 1862 the community founded the "Judith Lady Montefiore College" in Ramsgate, for the training of rabbis. This moved to London in the 1960s: students at the College concurrently followed courses at Jews' College (now the London School of Jewish Studies). Judith Lady Montefiore College closed in the 1980s, but was revived in 2005 as a part-time rabbinic training programme run from Lauderdale Road, serving the Anglo-Jewish Orthodox community in general, Ashkenazim as well as Sephardim.[25]
In the Americas
From the 16th to the 18th centuries, a majority of conversos leaving Portugal went to Brazil. This included economic emigrants with no interest in reverting to Judaism. As the Inquisition was active in Brazil as well as in Portugal, conversos still had to be careful.
Dutch Sephardim were interested in colonisation, and formed communities in both Curaçao and Paramaribo, Suriname. Between 1630 and 1654, a Dutch colony existed in the north-east of Brazil, including Recife. This attracted both conversos from Portuguese Brazil and Jewish emigrants from Holland, who formed a community in Recife called Kahal Zur Israel Synagogue, the first synagogue in the Americas. On the reconquest of the Recife area by Portugal, many of these Jews (it is not known what percentage) left Brazil for new or existing communities in the Caribbean such as Curaçao. Others formed a new community, Congregation Shearith Israel, in New Amsterdam (later renamed as New York) in 1654, the first Jewish synagogue in what became the United States. Numerous conversos, however, stayed in Brazil. They survived by migrating to the countryside in the province of Paraíba and away from the reinstated Inquisition, which was mostly active in the major cities.
In the Caribbean, there were at one point Spanish and Portuguese synagogues in various other Dutch- and English-controlled islands, such as Jamaica, St. Thomas, Barbados, St. Eustatius and Nevis. With the elimination of the Inquisition after the Spanish American wars of independence, which many Caribbean Sephardim had supported, many of these communities declined as Jews took advantage of their new-found freedom to move to the mainland, where there were better economic opportunities. Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, Costa Rica and Honduras, among others, received numbers of Sephardim. Within a couple of generations, these immigrants mostly converted to Catholicism in order to better integrate into society. Only in Panama and Suriname did viable communities endure on the Central- and South-American mainland. In the 21st century among the Caribbean islands, only Curaçao and Jamaica still have communities of Spanish and Portuguese Jews.
In Canada, at that time named as 'New France', Esther Brandeau was the first Jewish person to immigrate to Canada, in 1738, disguised as a Roman Catholic boy. She came from Saint-Esprit (Pyrénées-Atlantiques), a district of Bayonne, a port city in Southwestern France, were Spanish and Portuguese Jews had settled.
In the British Thirteen Colonies, synagogues were formed before the American Revolution at Newport, Rhode Island and Philadelphia, as well as in cities of the southern colonies of South Carolina, Virginia, and Georgia. Since then, many of the former Sephardic synagogues in the southern states and the Caribbean have become part of the Conservative, Reform or Reconstructionist movements, and retain only a few Spanish and Portuguese traditions.
Despite the Dutch origins of the New York community, by the 19th century all of the Spanish and Portuguese Jewish communities in the United States and Canada were very much part of the London-based family. The 19th and early 20th century editions of the prayer book published in London and Philadelphia contained the same basic text, and were designed for use on both sides of the Atlantic: for example, they all contained both a prayer for the Royal family and an alternative for use in republican states. The New York community continued to use these editions until the version of David de Sola Pool was published in 1954. On the other hand, in the first half of the 20th century, the New York community employed a series of hazzanim from Holland, with the result that the community's musical tradition remained close to that of Amsterdam.
There are only two remaining Spanish and Portuguese synagogues in the United States: Shearith Israel in New York, and Mikveh Israel in Philadelphia. In both congregations, only a minority of their membership has Western Sephardic ancestry, with the remaining members a mix of Ashkenazim, Levantine Sephardim, Mizrahim, and converts. Newer Sephardic and Sephardic-rite communities, such as the Syrian Jews of Brooklyn and the Greek and Turkish Jews of Seattle, do not come under the Spanish and Portuguese umbrella. The Seattle community did use the de Sola Pool prayer books until the publication of Siddur Zehut Yosef in 2002. Sephardic Temple Tifereth Israel, a community in Los Angeles with a mainly Turkish ethnic background, still uses the de Sola Pool prayer books.
In India and the East Indies – Goa, Cochin, Chennai and Malacca
The signing of the Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494, divided the world between Portugal, and Spain. Portugal was allotted responsibility over lands east of the Tordesillas meridian. In 1498 Vasco Da Gama arrived on India's western coast where he was first greeted by a Polish Jew: Gaspar da Gama. In 1505 Portugal made Cochin its eastern headquarters, and in 1510 Goa was established as the capital of Portuguese India.
Goa
With the establishment of the Portuguese colonies in Asia, New Christians began flocking to India's western coast. Regarding Goa, the Jewish Virtual Library states that "From the early decades of the 16th century many New Christians from Portugal came to Goa. The influx soon aroused the opposition of the Portuguese and ecclesiastical authorities, who complained bitterly about the New Christians' influence in economic affairs, their monopolistic practices, and their secret adherence to Judaism."[26] Professor Walter Fischel of the University of California, Berkeley observes that despite the start of the inquisition in Portugal, the Portuguese relied heavily on Jews and New Christians in establishing their fledgling Asian empire.[27] The influence of Jews and New Christians in Goa was substantial. In his book, The Marrano Factory, Professor Antonio Saraiva of the University of Lisbon writes that "King Manuel theoretically abolished discrimination between Old and New Christians by the law of March 1, 1507 which permitted the departure of New Christians to any part of the Christian world, declaring that they 'be considered, favored and treated like the Old Christians and not distinct and separated from them in any matter.' Nevertheless, in apparent contradiction to that law, in a letter dated Almeirim, February 18, 1519, King Manuel promoted legislation henceforth prohibiting the naming of New Christians to the position of judge, town councilor or municipal registrar in Goa, stipulating, however, that those already appointed were not to be dismissed. This shows that even during the first nine years of Portuguese rule, Goa had a considerable influx of recently baptized Spanish and Portuguese Jews"[28] There are even examples of well-positioned Portuguese Jews, and New Christians, leaving the Portuguese administration to work with the Muslim sultanates of India in an attempt to strike back at Portugal for what it had done to them viz-a-viz the inquisition in Portugal.[29] Moises Orfali of Bar-Ilan University writes that the initially Portuguese colonial and ecclesiastical authorities complained in very strong terms about Jewish influence in Goa.[30] The Goa Inquisition which was established in 1560 was initiated by Jesuit Priest Francis Xavier from his headquarters in Malacca due to his inability to reanimate the faith of the New Christians there, Goa and in the region who had returned to Judaism. Goa became the headquarters of the Inquisition in Asia.
Cochin, and Chennai
Cochin was, and still is, home to an ancient Jewish community (the Cochin Jews). Sephardic Jews from Iberia joined this community and became known as Paradesi Jews or "White Jews" (as opposed to older community which came to be known as the "Malabari Jews" or "Black Jews"). Cochin also attracted New Christians. In his lecture at the Library of Congress, Professor Sanjay Subrahmanyam of University of California, Los Angeles explains that New Christians came to India for economic opportunities (the Spice trade, the Golconda Diamonds trade, etc) and because India had well-established Jewish communities which allowed them the opportunity to rejoin the Jewish world.[31]
As explained by Professor Fischel, the Sephardic Jews of London were active in trading out of Fort St. George, India which later developed into the city of Madras, and is known today as Chennai and during the early years, the city council was required to have three Jewish aldermen to represent the community's interests.[32][33]
Malacca
Malacca, Malaysia was in the 16th century a Jewish hub – not only for Portuguese Jews but also for Jews from the middle east and the Malabar. With its synagogues and rabbis, Jewish culture in Malacca was alive and well. Visible Jewish presence (Dutch Jews) existed in Malacca right up to the 18th century. Due to the inquisition a lot of the Jews of Malacca were either captured or assimilated into the Malacca-Portuguese (Eurasian) community where they continued to live as New Christians. Malacca was the headquarters of Jesuit priest Francis Xavier and it was his discovery of the conversos from Portugal there who had openly returned to Judaism as in the fortresses of India that became the turning point and from whence he wrote to King John III of Portugal to start the inquisition in the East. Prominent Malaccan Jewish figures include Portuguese Rabbi Manoel Pinto, who was persecuted by the Goa Inquisition in 1573 and Duarte Fernandes a former Jewish tailor who had fled Portugal to escape the Inquisition who became the first European to establish diplomatic relations with Thailand.
Sinagogas
Most Spanish and Portuguese synagogues are, like those of the Italian and Romaniote Jews, characterised by a bipolar layout, with the tebáh bimah) near the opposite wall to the Hechál (Torah ark). The Hekhál has its parochet (curtain) inside its doors, rather than outside. The sefarim (Torah scrolls) are usually wrapped in a very wide mantle, quite different from the cylindrical mantles used by most Ashkenazi Jews. Tikim, wooden or metal cylinders around the sefarim, are typically not used. These were reportedly used, however, by the Portuguese Jewish community in Hamburg.
The most important synagogues, or esnogas, as they are usually called amongst Spanish and Portuguese Jews, are the Portuguese Synagogue of Amsterdam and those in London and New York. Amsterdam is still the historical centre of the Amsterdam minhag, as used in the Netherlands and former Dutch possessions such as Surinam. Also important is the Bevis Marks Synagogue in London, the historical centre of the London minhag. The Curaçao synagogue (built in 1732 and known as the Snoa, the Papiamento form of esnoga) of the Mikvé Israel-Emanuel congregation is considered one of the most important synagogues in the Jewish history of the Americas.
Since the late 20th century, many esnogas or synagogues in the Iberian Peninsula have been discovered by archaeologists and restored by both private and governmental efforts. In particular, the synagogues of Girona, Spain and Tomar, Portugal have been impressively restored to their former grandeur, if not their former social importance. (See the article Synagogue of Tomar.) Both Spain and Portugal have recently made efforts to reach out to descendants of Jews who were expelled from the peninsula in the 15th century, inviting them to apply for citizenship.
Idioma
"Spanish and Portuguese Jews" typically spoke both Spanish and Portuguese in their Early Modern forms. This is in contrast to the languages spoken by Eastern Sephardim and North African Sephardim, which were archaic Old Spanish derived dialects of Judaeo-Spanish ("Ladino") and Haketia (a mixture of Old Spanish, Hebrew, and Aramaic, plus various other languages depending on the area of their settlement). Their Early Modern languages also differ from modern Spanish and Portuguese, as spoken by Sephardic Bnei Anusim of Iberia and Ibero-America, including some recent returnees to Judaism in the late 20th and early 21st centuries.
The use of Spanish and Portuguese languages by Western Sephardim persists in parts of the synagogue service. Otherwise, the use of Spanish and Portuguese quickly diminished amongst the Spanish and Portuguese Jews after the 17th century, when they were adapting to new societies.
In practice, from the mid-19th century on, the Spanish and Portuguese Jews gradually replaced their traditional languages with the local ones of their places of residence for their everyday use. Local languages used by "Spanish and Portuguese Jews" include Dutch in the Netherlands and Belgium, Low German in the Altona, Hamburg area, and English in Great Britain, Ireland, Jamaica, and the United States.
In Curaçao, Spanish and Portuguese Jews contributed to the formation of Papiamento, a creole of Portuguese and various African languages. It is still used as an everyday language on the island.
Spanish and Portuguese Jews who have migrated to Latin America since the late 20th century have generally adopted modern standard Latin American varieties of Spanish as their mother tongue.
Portuguese
Because of the relatively high proportion of immigrants through Portugal, the majority of Spanish and Portuguese Jews of the 16th and 17th centuries spoke Portuguese as their first language. Portuguese was used for everyday communication in the first few generations, and was the usual language for official documents such as synagogue by-laws; for this reason, synagogue officers still often have Portuguese titles such as Parnas dos Cautivos and Thesoureiro do Heshaim. As a basic academic language, Portuguese was used for such works as the halakhic manual Thesouro dos Dinim by Menasseh Ben Israel and controversial works by Uriel da Costa.
The Judaeo-Portuguese dialect was preserved in some documents, but was extinct since the late 18th century: for example, Portuguese ceased to be a spoken language in Holland in the Napoleonic period, when Jewish schools were allowed to teach only in Dutch and Hebrew. Sermons in Bevis Marks Synagogue were preached in Portuguese till 1830, when English was substituted. Judaeo-Portuguese has had some influence on the Judeo-Italian language of Livorno, known as Bagitto.
Castilian (Spanish)
Castilian Spanish was used as the everyday language by those who came directly from Spain in the first few generations. Those who came from Portugal regarded it as their literary language, as did the Portuguese at that time. Relatively soon, the Castilian Ladino took on a semi-sacred status ("Ladino", in this context, simply means literal translation from Hebrew: it should not be confused with the Judaeo-Spanish used by Balkan, Greek and Turkish Sephardim.) Works of theology as well as reza books (siddurim) were written in Castilian rather than in Portuguese; while, even in works written in Portuguese such as the Thesouro dos Dinim, quotations from the Bible or the prayer book were usually given in Spanish. Members of the Amsterdam community continued to use Spanish as a literary language. They established clubs and libraries for the study of modern Spanish literature, such as the Academia de los Sitibundos (founded 1676) and the Academia de los Floridos (1685).
In England the use of Spanish continued until the early 19th century: In 1740 Haham Isaac Nieto produced a new translation into contemporary Spanish of the prayers for the New Year and Yom Kippur, and in 1771 a translation of the daily, Sabbath and Festival prayers. There was an unofficial translation into English in 1771 by A. Alexander and others by David Levi in 1789 and following years, but the Prayer Books were first officially translated into English in 1836, by hakham David de Aaron de Sola. Today Spanish Jews in England have little tradition of using Spanish, except for the hymn Bendigamos, the translation of the Biblical passages in the prayer-book for Tisha B'Av, and in certain traditional greetings.
Hebrew
The Hebrew of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews from the 19th century and 20th century is characterised primarily by the pronunciation of בֿ (Beth rafé) as a hard b (e.g., Abrahám, Tebáh, Habdaláh) and the pronunciation of ע (ʿAyin) as a voiced velar nasal (Shemang, Ngalénu). The hard pronunciation of Beth Rafé differs from the v pronunciation of Moroccan Jews and the Judaeo-Spanish Jews of the Balkans, but is shared by Algerian and Syrian Jews. The nasal pronunciation of 'Ayin is shared with traditional Italian pronunciation (where it can be either "ng" or "ny"), but not with any other Sephardi groups.[34] Both these features are declining, under the influence of hazzanim from other communities and of Israeli Hebrew.
The sibilants ס, שׂ, שׁ and צ are all transcribed as s in earlier sources. This, along with the traditional spellings Sabá (Shabbat), Menasseh (Menashe), Ros(as)anáh (Rosh Hashana), Sedacáh (tzedaka), massoth (matzot), is evidence of a traditional pronunciation which did not distinguish between the various sibilants—a trait which is shared with some coastal dialects of Moroccan Hebrew.[35] Since the 19th century, the pronunciations [ʃ] (for שׁ and [ts] for צ have become common—probably by influence from Oriental Sephardic immigrants, from Ashkenazi Hebrew and, in our times, Israeli Hebrew.
The תֿ (taw rafé) is pronounced like t in all traditions of Spanish and Portuguese Jews today, although the consistent transliteration as th in 17th-century sources may suggest an earlier differentiation of תֿ and תּ. (Final תֿ is occasionally heard as d.)
In Dutch-speaking areas, but not elsewhere, ג (gimel) is often pronounced [χ] like Dutch "g". More careful speakers use this sound for gimel rafé (gimel without dagesh), while pronouncing gimel with dagesh as [ɡ].[36]
Dutch Sephardim take care to pronounce he with mappiq as a full "h", usually repeating the vowel: vi-yamlich malchutéhe.
The accentuation of Hebrew adheres strictly to the rules of Biblical Hebrew, including the secondary stress on syllables with a long vowel before a shva. Also, the shvá nang in the beginning of a word is normally pronounced as a short eh (Shemang, berít, berakháh). Shva nang is also normally pronounced after a long vowel with secondary stress (ngomedím, barekhú). However it is not pronounced after a prefixed u- (and): ubne, not u-bene.
Vocal shva, segol (short e) and tzere (long e) are all pronounced like the 'e' in "bed": there is no distinction except in length.[37] In some communities, e.g. Amsterdam, vocal shva is pronounced [a] when marked with gangya (a straight line next to the vowel symbol, equivalent to meteg), and as [i] when followed by the letter yodh: thus va-nashubah and bi-yom (but be-Yisrael).[38]
The differentiation between kamatz gadol and kamatz katan is made according to purely phonetic rules without regard to etymology, which occasionally leads to spelling pronunciations at variance with the rules laid down in the grammar books. For example, כָל (all), when unhyphenated, is pronounced "kal" rather than "kol" (in "kal ngatsmotai" and "Kal Nidre"), and צָהֳרַיִם (noon) is pronounced "tsahorayim" rather than "tsohorayim". This feature is shared by other Sephardic groups, but is not found in Israeli Hebrew. It is also found in the transliteration of proper names in the King James Version such as Naomi, Aholah and Aholibah.
Liturgia
Although all Sephardic liturgies are similar, each group has its own distinct liturgy. Many of these differences are a product of the syncretization of the Spanish liturgy and the liturgies of the local communities where Spanish exiles settled. Other differences are the result of earlier regional variations in liturgy from pre-expulsion Spain. Moses Gaster (died 1939, Hakham of the S&P Jews of Great Britain) has shown that the order of prayers used by Spanish and Portuguese Jews has its origin in the Castilian liturgy of Pre-Expulsion Spain.
As compared with other Sephardic groups, the minhag of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews is characterised by a relatively low number of cabbalistic additions. The Friday night service thus traditionally starts with Psalm 29, "Mizmor leDavid: Habu LaA.”. In the printed siddurim of the mid-17th century, “Lekhah Dodi" and the Mishnaic passage Bammeh madlikin are also not yet included, but these are included in all newer siddurim of the tradition except for the early West London and Mickve Israel (Savannah) Reform prayerbooks, both of which have Spanish and Portuguese roots.
Of other, less conspicuous, elements, a number of archaic forms can be mentioned—including some similarities with the Italian and Western Ashkenazi traditions. Such elements include the shorter form of the Birkat hammazon which can be found in the older Amsterdam and Hamburg/Scandinavian traditions. The Livorno (Leghorn) tradition, however, includes many of the cabbalistic additions found in most other Sephardi traditions. The current London minhag is generally close to the Amsterdam minhag, but follows the Livorno tradition in some details—most notably in the Birkat hammazon.
One interesting feature of the tradition (at least in New York and Philadelphia) is that, when reading the haftarah on Simhat Torah and Shabbat Bereshit, the Hatan Torah and Hatan Bereshit chant two extra verses pertaining to bridegrooms from Isaiah 61:10 and 62:5 at the end of the standard haftarot for the days themselves. This seems to be a unique remnant of the old tradition of reading Isaiah 61:10–63:9 if a bridegroom who had been married the previous week was present in synagogue.
Música
Historical
The ritual music of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews differs from other Sephardic music in that it is influenced by Western European Baroque and Classical music to a relatively high degree. Not only in Spanish and Portuguese communities, but in many others in southern France[39] and northern Italy,[40] it was common to commission elaborate choral compositions, often including instrumental music, for the dedication of a synagogue, for family events such as weddings and circumcisions and for festivals such as Hoshana Rabbah, on which the halachic restriction on instrumental music did not apply.
Already in 1603, the sources tell us that harpsichords were used in the Spanish and Portuguese synagogues in Hamburg. Particularly in the Amsterdam community, but to some degree also in Hamburg and elsewhere, there was a flourishing of Classical music in the synagogues in the 18th century. There was formerly a custom in Amsterdam, inspired by a hint in the Zohar, of holding an instrumental concert on Friday afternoon prior to the coming in of the Shabbat, as a means of getting the congregants in the right mood for the Friday night service. An important Jewish composer was Abraham Caceres; music was also commissioned from non-Jewish composers such as Cristiano Giuseppe Lidarti, some of which is still used.
The same process took place in Italy, where the Venetian community commissioned music from non-Jewish composers such as Carlo Grossi and Benedetto Marcello.
Another important centre for Spanish and Portuguese Jewish music was Livorno, where a rich cantorial tradition developed, incorporating both traditional Sephardic music from around the Mediterranean and composed art music: this was in turn disseminated to other centres.[41]
In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, in particular in Italy at the time of the Italian unification, hazzanim sometimes doubled as opera singers, and some liturgical compositions from this period reflect this operatic character.
Choirs
Already in the 17th century, choirs were used in the service on holidays in the Amsterdam community: this choir still exists and is known as Santo Serviço. This custom was introduced in London in the early 19th century. In most cases, the choirs have consisted only of men and boys, but in Curaçao, the policy was changed to allow women in the choir (in a separate section) in 1863.
Instrumental music
There are early precedents for the use of instrumental music in the synagogue originating in 17th century Italy as well as the Spanish and Portuguese communities of Hamburg and Amsterdam and in the Ashkenazic community of Prague. As in most other communities the use of instrumental music is not permitted on Shabbat or festivals.
As a general rule, Spanish and Portuguese communities do not use pipe organs or other musical instruments during services. In some Spanish and Portuguese communities, notably in France (Bordeaux, Bayonne), US (Savannah, Georgia, Charleston, South Carolina, Richmond, Virginia) and the Caribbean (Curaçao), pipe organs came into use during the course of the 19th century, in parallel with developments in Reform Judaism. In Curaçao, where the traditional congregation had an organ set up in the late 19th century, the use of the organ on Shabbat was eventually also accepted, as long as the organ player was not Jewish. In the more traditional congregations, such as London and New York, a free-standing organ or electric piano is used at weddings or benot mitzvah (although never on Shabbat or Yom Tob), in the same way as in some English Ashkenazi synagogues.
Current practice
The cantorial style of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews adheres to the general Sephardi principle that every word is sung out loud and that most of the ritual is performed communally rather than solistically (although nowadays in the New York community, the Pesukei dezimra (zemirot) throughout the year, Hallél on festivals or the new moon, and several of the selichot during Yom Kippur are chanted in a manner more similar to the Ashkenazi practice of reading only the first and last few verses of each paragraph aloud). The hazzan's rôle is typically one of guiding the congregation rather than being a soloist. Thus, there is traditionally a much stronger emphasis on correct diction and knowledge of the musical minhág than on the solistic voice quality.[42] In the parts of the service where the ḥazzán would traditionally have a more solistic rôle, the basic melodies are embellished according to the general principles of Baroque performance practice: for example, after a prayer or hymn sung by the congregation, the ḥazzán often repeats the last line in a highly elaborated form. Two- and three-part harmony is relatively common, and Edwin Seroussi has shown that the harmonies are a reflection of more complex, four-part harmonies in written sources from the 18th century.
The recitative style of the central parts of the service, such as the Amidah, the Psalms and the cantillation of the Torah is loosely related to that of other Sephardi and Mizraḥi communities, though there is no formal maqam system as used by most of these.[43] The closest resemblance is to the rituals of Gibraltar and Northern Morocco, as Spanish and Portuguese communities traditionally recruited their ḥazzanim from these countries. There is a remoter affinity with the Babylonian and North African traditions: these are more conservative than the Syrian and Judaeo-Spanish (Balkan, Greek, Turkish) traditions, which have been more heavily influenced by popular Mediterranean, Turkish and Arabic music.
In other parts of the service, and in particular on special occasions such as the festivals, Shabbat Bereshit and the anniversary of the founding of the synagogue, the traditional tunes are often replaced by metrical and harmonized compositions in the Western European style. This is not the case on Rosh Hashanah and Kippúr (Yom Kippur), when the whole service has a far more archaic character.
A characteristic feature of Oriental Sephardic music is the transposition of popular hymn tunes (themselves sometimes derived from secular songs) to important prayers such as Nishmat and Kaddish. This occurs only to a limited extent in the Spanish and Portuguese ritual: such instances as exist can be traced to the book of hymns Imre no'am (1628), published in Amsterdam by Joseph Gallego, a hazzan originating in Salonica.[44] Certain well-known tunes, such as El nora aliláh and Ahhot ketannáh, are shared with Sephardi communities worldwide with small variations.
Cantillation
Spanish and Portuguese traditional cantillation has several unique elements. Torah cantillation is divided into two musical styles. The first is the standard used for all regular readings. A similar but much more elaborate manner of cantillation is used on special occasions. This is normally referred to as High Tangamim or High Na'um. It is used for special portions of the Torah reading, principally the Ten Commandments[45] but also Chapter 1 of Bereshit (on Simchat Torah), the Shirat ha-Yam, the Song of Moses, the concluding sentences of each of the five books and several other smaller portions.[46]
Spanish and Portuguese Torah cantillation has been notated several times since the 17th century. The melodies now in use, particularly in London, show some changes from the earlier notated versions and a degree of convergence with the Iraqi melody.[47]
The rendition of the Haftarah (prophetic portion) also has two (or three) styles. The standard, used for most haftarot, is nearly identical with that of the Moroccan nusach. A distinctly more somber melody is used for the three haftarot preceding the ninth of Ab (the "three weeks".) On the morning of the Ninth of Ab a third melody is used for the Haftarah—although this melody is borrowed from the melody for the Book of Ruth.
There is a special melody used for reading the Book of Esther on Purim, but this is not cantillation in the accepted sense as it is chant-like and does not depend on the Masoretic symbols. There are however the remnants of a cantillation melody in the chant for the verses from the Book of Esther read at the conclusion of the morning service in the two weeks preceding Purim;[48] this melody is also used for certain verses recited by the congregation during the reading on Purim itself.
The books of Ruth, read on Shavuot, and Lamentations, read on the Ninth of Ab, have their own cantillation melodies as well. There is no tradition of reading Ecclesiastes.
Most Spanish and Portuguese communities have no tradition of liturgical reading of the Shir haShirim (Song of Songs), unlike Ashkenazim who read it on Pesach and Oriental Sephardim who read it on Friday nights. However in the two weeks preceding Pesach a passage consisting of selected verses from that book is read each day at the end of the morning service.[49] The chant is similar but not identical to the chant for Shir haShirim in the Moroccan tradition, but does not exactly follow the printed cantillation marks. A similar chant is used for the prose parts of the book of Job on the Ninth of Ab.
There is no cantillation mode for the books of Psalms, Proverbs and the poetic parts of Job. The chant for the Psalms in the Friday night service has some resemblance to the cantillation mode of the Oriental traditions, but is not dependent on the cantillation marks.
Comunidades, pasado y presente
City | Synagogue or Community[50] | Website | Comments |
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Europe
Belgium and the Netherlands
Amsterdam | Congregation Talmud Torah, Visserplein (1639) | http://www.portugesesynagoge.nl/eng | synagogue opened 1675 |
Antwerp | Portuguese synagogue, Hovenierstraat (1898) | synagogue opened 1913; membership and ritual now mainly North African | |
The Hague | http://www.ljgdenhaag.nl/ | now the Liberal Synagogue |
France
Bayonne | http://www.communautedebayonne.org/ | see French Wikipedia article | |
Bordeaux | http://www.synagogue-bordeaux.com/, [1] | ||
Paris | Temple Buffault (1877) | [2] | membership mainly Algerian |
Carpentras | [3] | formerly used the Provençal rite, then assimilated to the Bordeaux Portuguese minhag |
Germany and Denmark
Hamburg | Beth Israel (1652) | ||
Altona | Neweh Schalom (c. 1700–1885) | ||
Glückstadt | |||
Copenhagen | The Portuguese congregation of Copenhagen (1684) | ||
Fredericia | Community active between 1675–1902 |
Gibraltar
Gibraltar | Sha'ar Hashamayim (1724) | known as "Esnoga Grande"; synagogue opened 1812 | |
Ets Hayim (1759) | known as "Esnoga Chica" | ||
Nefutsot Yehuda (1799) | known as "Esnoga Flamenca" | ||
Abudarham Synagogue (1820) | named after Solomon Abudarham |
Great Britain
London (City of London) | Bevis Marks Synagogue (synagogue opened 1701) | https://www.sephardi.org.uk/ (whole community); http://www.bevismarks.org.uk (Bevis Marks) | community Sahar Asamaim dates from 1656, owns all three synagogues |
London (City of Westminster) | Wigmore Street branch synagogue (1853–1861) | http://www.jewishgen.org/jcr-uk/london/bryanston_seph/index.htm | |
London (City of Westminster) | Bryanston Street branch synagogue (1866–1896) | http://www.jewishgen.org/jcr-uk/london/bryanston_seph/index.htm (wrongly shown as "Bryanston Road") | replaced Wigmore Street synagogue |
London (City of Westminster) | Lauderdale Road synagogue (1896) | http://www.lauderdaleroadsynagogue.org | replaced Bryanston Street branch synagogue |
Wembley Synagogue (1977) | http://www.wsps.org.uk/ | community formed in 1962 | |
London (Kensington & Chelsea) | Holland Park Synagogue | http://www.hollandparksynagogue.com | mixed rite, Greek and Turkish |
Rambam Sephardi Synagogue, Elstree | http://www.rambam.org.uk/ | in process of formation | |
Andrade Synagogue (1865–1884) | http://www.jewishgen.org/jcr-uk/london/islington_andrade/index.htm | private synagogue in Islington | |
Mildmay Park Synagogue (1885–1935) | http://www.jewishgen.org/jcr-uk/london/mildmay_seph/index.htm | private synagogue in Highbury | |
Manchester | Sha'are Hayim (formerly Withington Congregation of Spanish and Portuguese Jews), Queenston Road, West Didsbury (community formed 1906 or before; synagogue opened 1926) | ||
Sha'are Sedek, Old Lansdowne Road, West Didsbury (1924) | http://www.jewishgen.org/jcr-uk/Community/m35_seph-sth-man/index.htm | formerly independent; later merged into Sephardi Congregation of South Manchester | |
Hale | Sha'are Sedek | https://www.shalommorris.com/2016/06/29/south-manchester-shaare-rahamim-and-zedek/ | in formation |
Salford | Spanish and Portuguese Synagogue (Sha'are Tephillah) | https://www.moorlane.info | formerly at Cheetham Hill (the old building is now the Manchester Jewish Museum) |
Leeds | Spanish and Portuguese Synagogue of Leeds (est. 1924; dissolved in late 1940s) | [4] |
Ireland
Dublin | Crane Lane Synagogue; Dublin's Old Hebrew Congregation (1660–1791) | Also known as Crane Lane Synagogue, Marlborough Green Synagogue. | |
Cork | Portuguese congregation | Founded either 1731 or 1747, extinct by 1796 |
Italy
Venice | Scola Spagnola (1550) | http://jvenice.org/en/spanish-synagogue | |
Pisa | Jewish community of Pisa (1591–3) | http://pisaebraica.it/cms/ | original synagogue built 1595; rebuilt c. 1860 |
Livorno | Comunità ebraica di Livorno (1593) | http://www.comunitaebraica.org/main_eng.htm | original synagogue built 1603; present synagogue opened 1962 |
Florence | Great Synagogue of Florence | http://moked.it/firenzebraica | |
Rome | Tempio Spagnolo, Via Catalana | uses one room of the Great Synagogue of Rome |
Portugal
Lisbon | Sha'aré Tikvá | http://www.cilisboa.org/ | |
Oporto | Sinagoga Mekor Haim (Kadoorie Synagogue) | http://comunidade-israelita-porto.org/ | |
Belmonte | Bet Eliahu | see History of the Jews in Belmonte | |
Ponta Delgada, Azores | Sahar Hassamain Synagogue | see Portuguese Wikipedia article | |
Angra do Heroísmo, Terceira, Azores | Sinagoga Ets Haim | see Portuguese Wikipedia article | |
Funchal, Madeira | Synagogue of Funchal | Currently disused |
Asia
Israel
Jerusalem | Congregation Sha'are Ratzon (1981) | http://www.sandpjerusalem.org/ | Located in the Istanbuli Synagogue in Jerusalem's Old City and following (mostly) the London minhag with occasional guest hazzanim |
India
Chennai | Madras Synagogue | dwindling mixed Portuguese, Spanish & Dutch Sephardic community known as Paradesi Jews. Madras Synagogue was demolished by the local government to make space for the construction of a municipal school.Jewish Cemetery Chennai remains the only memoir of the once significant Jewish population of Chennai[51][52] |
Indonesia
Surabaya | Surabaya Synagogue | dwindling mixed Dutch Sephardic, Baghdadi, and Yemenite community. Closed down in 2009 because of political upheavals. |
Americas
Canada
Montreal | Spanish and Portuguese Synagogue of Montreal (1768) | http://www.thespanish.org/ | current synagogue opened 1947 |
United States
New York City | Congregation Shearith Israel (1654) | http://www.shearithisrael.org/ | first synagogue built 1730; current building dates from 1897 |
Newport, Rhode Island | Touro Synagogue "Congregation Jeshuat Israel" (1658) | http://www.tourosynagogue.org | synagogue opened 1763; reopened 1883. Current rite is Nusach Sephard, not Spanish-Portuguese |
Philadelphia | Mikveh Israel (1745) | http://www.mikvehisrael.org/ | congregation founded in 1740; current building dates to 1976 |
Houston, Texas | Qahal Qadosh Ess Hayim (2005) | Defunct. | |
Miami, Florida | Comunidad Nidhé Israel, judios Hispano-portugueses de Florida (2007) | Defunct. | |
Richmond, Virginia | Beth Shalome (1789–1898) | http://www.bethahabah.org/index.htm | since merged into congregation Beth Ahabah, which is now Reform |
Charleston, South Carolina | Congregation Beth Elohim (1750) | http://www.kkbe.org/ | now Reform |
Savannah, Georgia | Congregation Mickve Israel (1733) | http://www.mickveisrael.org/ | now Reform |
New Orleans | Nefutzot Yehudah | http://www.tourosynagogue.com/ | since merged into Touro Synagogue (New Orleans) (1828), now Reform |
Central America and the Caribbean
Willemstad, Curaçao | Mikve Israel-Emanuel (1730) | http://www.snoa.com | now Reconstructionist |
Jamaica | Neveh Shalom (1704) | http://www.ucija.org, http://www.haruth.com/JewsJamaica | merged into the United Congregation of Israelites (1921) |
Aruba | Beth Israel | http://www.haruth.com/JewsAruba.html | |
St. Thomas, Virgin Islands | Beracha Veshalom Vegmiluth Hasidim, Charlotte Amalie (1796) | https://web.archive.org/web/20080726043634/http://www.onepaper.com/synagogue/ | now Reform |
Barbados | Nidhe Israel Synagogue, Bridgetown (1651) | http://www.haruth.com/jw/JewsBarbados.html | now Conservative |
El Salvador | Sephardic Orthodox Jewish Council of El Salvador "Shearit Israel" (2008) | http://www.sephardicjews.org, http://www.kosherelsalvador.com | the only orthodox synagogue in El Salvador |
Dominican Republic | Beth HaMidrash Eleazar "Casa de Estudio Sefardíes de la Republica Dominicana" (2009) | http://www.bmeleazar.org | the only traditional Sephardic Center in the Dominican Republic |
Trinidad and Tobago | B'nai Shalom (2001) | http://www.jewishtnt.org | the Jewish society of Trinidad and Tobago, which uses Sephardi minhag; many members are of Sephardic origin |
Panama | Kol Shearith Israel (1876) |
Suriname
Paramaribo | Sedek Ve Shalom Synagogue (1735) | [5] | community merged with Neveh Shalom; Conservative |
Neveh Shalom Synagogue (1716 to 1735) | http://www.suriname-jewish-community.com/index.html | sold to Ashkenazim in 1735 | |
Jodensavanne | Congregation Bereche ve Shalom (1639 to 1832) |
Brazil
Recife | Kahal Zur Israel Synagogue (1637 to 1654) | recently restored as museum and community centre |
Rabinos destacados / clero
- Immanuel Aboab
- Menasseh Ben Israel
- Jacob ben Aaron Sasportas
- Saul Levi Morteira
- Jacob ben Hayyim Zemah
- Isaac Aboab da Fonseca
- Jacob Abendana
- David Nieto
- Hezekiah da Silva
- Isaac Nieto
- Gershom Mendes Seixas
- Raphael Meldola
- David de Aaron de Sola
- Elijah Benamozegh
- Abraham de Sola
- Sabato Morais
- Abraham Pereira Mendes
- Frederick de Sola Mendes
- Joseph Athias
- Henry Pereira Mendes
- Moses Gaster
- David de Sola Pool
- Shem Tob Gaguine
- Judah Cassuto
- Aron Mendes Chumaceiro
- Abraham Lopes Cardozo
- Isaac Touro
- Henry Samuel Morais
- Abraham Cohen Pimentel
- Emanuel Nunes Carvalho
- Jessurun Cardozo
- Solomon Gaon
- David Cohen de Lara
- Marc D. Angel
- Hayyim Angel
- Pinchas Toledano
- Joseph Dweck
Otras personalidades destacadas
- First-generation Sephardic exiles – Isaac Abravanel, Solomon ibn Verga, Abraham Zacuto, de:Abraham ben Salomon de Torrutiel Ardutiel, Joseph ben Tzaddik
- Antonio de Nebrija – linguist, historian, teacher and astronomer
- Judah Leon Abravanel – physician, poet, and philosopher
- Pedro de Herrera – Gibraltar community leader
- Alonso Calle – treasurer on the first voyage of Christopher Columbus to the Americas; one of the settlers of Sephardic origin who composed the crew
- Juan de Vergara – writer, humanist and hellenist
- Garcia de Orta – physician, herbalist and naturalist
- Gracia Mendes Nasi – businesswoman and philanthropist
- Amato Lusitano – physician who discovered the circulation of the blood
- Joseph Nasi – Duke of Naxos
- Roderigo Lopez – physician who served Elizabeth I of England
- Abraham Usque – 16th-century publisher
- Samuel Pallache – merchant, diplomat and pirat
- Elijah Montalto – physician and polemicist from Paris, became the personal physician of Marie de' Medici
- Abraham Cohen Herrera – religious philosopher and Kabbalist
- Uriel da Costa – controversial writer
- Antonio Fernandez Carvajal – Portuguese-Jewish merchant, became the first endenizened English Jew
- Moses Cohen Henriques – Caribbean pirate
- Jacob Lumbrozo – physician, farmer, and trader resident in the Province of Maryland
- Isaac Cardoso – physician, philosopher, and polemic writer
- Benjamin Musaphia – Jewish doctor, scholar and Kabbalist
- Leonora Duarte – Flemish composer and musician
- David Cohen Nassy – professional colonizer who started Jewish colonies in the Caribbean
- Isaac Orobio de Castro – religious writer
- Isaac de Castro Tartas – Jewish martyr
- Miguel de Barrios – poet and historian
- David de Castro Tartas – printer in Amsterdam
- Gabriel Milan – governor of the Danish West Indies
- Abraham Israel Pereyra – prominent Portuguese-Dutch merchant
- Solomon Franco – Jewish rabbi, converted to Anglicanism, first Jew in Greater Boston
- Baruch Spinoza – philosopher
- Daniel Israel López Laguna – Portuguese-Jamaican translator and poet
- Joseph de la Vega – merchant, poet, and philanthropist
- Solomon de Medina – army contractor for William III of England, first Jew to be knighted in England
- Moses da Costa – 18th-century English banker
- Isaac de Sequeira Samuda – British physician
- Francisco Lopes Suasso – financier to William the Silent
- Luis Moises Gomez – prominent businessman and leader within the early Jewish community in the Province of New York
- Joseph Franco Serrano – Amsterdam publisher, academician and translator of the Torah into Spanish
- Samuel Nunez – Portuguese physician, among the earliest Jews to settle in North America
- Jacob de Castro Sarmento – Portuguese estrangeirado, physician, naturalist, poet and deist
- Baron Diego Pereira d'Aguilar – Austrian-English Jewish businessman, community leader and philanthropist
- António José da Silva – Brazilian dramatist
- John de Sequeyra – British physician who was born into a Spanish-Portuguese Jewish family
- David Franco Mendes – Dutch Hebrew-language poet
- Jacob Rodrigues Pereira – financier, academic and the first teacher of deaf-mutes in France
- Joseph Salvador – British-Jewish businessman, first and only Jew to become a director of the East India Company
- Isaac de Pinto – Dutch scholar and one of the main investors in the Dutch East India Company
- Emanuel Mendez da Costa – English botanist, naturalist, philosopher, and collector of valuable notes and of manuscripts, and of anecdotes of the literati
- Abraham de Caceres – Portuguese-Dutch composer of the late baroque period
- Isaac Pinto – American publisher
- Aaron Lopez – Portuguese Jewish merchant and philanthropist
- Isaac Henrique Sequeira – Portuguese Jewish doctor
- Ephraim Lópes Pereira d'Aguilar, 2nd Baron d'Aguilar – second Baron d'Aguilar, a Barony of the Holy Roman Empire
- Haym Salomon – financier to George Washington
- Francis Salvador – first American Jew killed in the American Revolution
- Aaron Nunez Cardozo —English businessman, established in Gibraltar[53] and was consul for Tunis and Algiers in Gibraltar
- Daniel Mendoza – English prizefighter, boxing champion of England (1792–95)
- Isaac D'Israeli – writer
- David Ricardo – economist
- Judah Touro – American businessman and philanthropist
- Moses Montefiore – philanthropist
- Mordecai Manuel Noah – American playwright, diplomat, journalist, and utopian
- Henri Castro – one of the most important empresarios of the Republic of Texas
- Olinde Rodrigues – French banker, mathematician, and social reformer
- Isaac Mendes Belisario – Jamaican artist.
- Abraham Capadose – Dutch physician
- Rehuel Lobatto – Dutch mathematician
- Isaac da Costa – Dutch poet
- Péreire brothers – French financiers, rivals of the Rothschilds
- Abraham Cohen Labatt – American merchant and pioneer of Reform Judaism in the United States
- Benjamin Mendes da Costa – English merchant and philanthropist
- David Laurent de Lara – London-based, Dutch-born limner
- Jacob De Cordova – founder of the Gleaner Company and later a member of the Texas House of Representatives
- Judah P. Benjamin – politician and lawyer
- Samuel Sarphati – Dutch physician and Amsterdam city planner
- Joseph d'Aguilar Samuda – English civil engineer and politician
- Grace Aguilar – novelist
- Mark Prager Lindo – Dutch prose writer
- Edwin de Leon —diplomat, writer, and journalist in the Confederate States of America
- Moses Angel – educationist and founder of The Jewish Chronicle
- Samuel Senior Coronel – Dutch physician
- Albert Cardozo – American jurist
- Camille Pissarro – French painter
- Jacob Mendes Da Costa – American physician and surgeon
- Jacob da Silva Solis-Cohen American physician who specialized in the field of laryngology.
- Thomas Cooper de Leon – American journalist, author, and playwright
- Catulle Mendès – French poet
- Moses Jacob Ezekiel;– American soldier and sculptor
- Emma Lazarus – American poet
- Raphael Meldola – British chemist and entomologist
- Ernest Peixotto – artist
- Daniel De Leon – American socialist, editor-in-chief of a newspaper, politician, Marxist theoretician, and trade union organizer
- David Belasco – American theatrical producer, impresario, director and playwright
- M.A. Mendes de Leon – Dutch physician, one of the founding fathers of gynaecology in the Netherlands
- Solomon da Silva Solis-Cohen American physician, professor of medicine and prominent Zionist.
- Rufus Isaacs, 1st Marquess of Reading – Viceroy of India (1921–25), barrister, jurist and Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs of the United Kingdom
- David Lobo – Venezuelan doctor, professor, writer and politician.
- Annie Nathan Meyer – American author and promoter of higher education for women
- Maud Nathan – American social worker, labor activist and suffragette for women's right to vote
- Joseph Mendes da Costa – Dutch sculptor and teacher.
- Samuel Jessurun de Mesquita – Dutch graphic artist, teacher of M. C. Escher
- Benjamin N. Cardozo – U.S. Supreme Court Justice
- Theodore Seixas Solomons –explorer and early member of the Sierra Club
- Federigo Enriques – Italian mathematician
- Emanuel Querido – successful Dutch publisher
- Elías David Curiel – Venezuelan poet, educator and journalist
- Reine Colaço Osorio-Swaab – Dutch composer
- Mozes Salomon Vaz Dias – Dutch newspaperman
- Ernesto Cortissoz Alvarez-Correa – Colombian commercial aviation pioneer, founder of SCADTA (now known as Avianca), the oldest still-operating airline in the Americas
- David Jessurun Lobo – Dutch theater actor
- Alexander Teixeira de Mattos – Dutch journalist, literary critic and publisher, who gained his greatest fame as a translator
- Carlos Salzedo French harpist, pianist, composer and conductor
- Max Oróbio de Castro – Dutch cellist
- Philip Guedalla – writer and critic
- Joseph Teixeira de Mattos – Dutch watercolor painter and pastellist
- Robert Nathan – American novelist and poet
- Vivian de Sola Pinto – British poet, literary critic and historian
- Morris Fidanque de Castro – first native Governor of the United States Virgin Islands
- Robert David Quixano Henriques – British writer, broadcaster and farmer
- Sir Alan Mocatta – English judge, expert on restrictive practices and a leader of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews of Britain
- Pierre Mendès France – French President of the Council of Ministers
- William Pereira – American architect noted for his futuristic designs of landmark buildings
- Sam Costa – British popular singer and radio disk jockey
- Max Delvalle – Vice President (and briefly President) of Panama
- Frank de Miranda – Dutch sculptor, psychologist and publicist.
- Frank R. Nunes Nabarro – English-born South African physicist and one of the pioneers of solid-state physics
- George Maduro – Dutch war hero
- Abraham Bueno de Mesquita – comedian
- Abraham Pais – Dutch-born American physicist and science historian
- Hans Ulrich Jessurun d'Oliveira – Dutch journalist and writer
- Eric Arturo Delvalle – President of Panama
- Bruce Bueno de Mesquita – political scientist, professor at New York University, and senior fellow at Stanford University's Hoover Institution
- Rene Cassin, French jurist
Descendientes de judíos españoles y portugueses
- Luis de Carvajal y de la Cueva – adventurer, slaver and first governor and captain-general of the New Kingdom of León
- Michel de Montaigne – French writer
- Diego Velázquez – Spanish painter
- Juan Lindo – First president of El Salvador and president of Honduras
- Christian de Meza – commander of the Danish army during the 1864 Second Schleswig War
- Camille Pissarro – Danish-French Impressionist and Neo-impressionist painter
- Jorge Isaacs – Colombian writer, politician and soldier
- Francisco Henríquez y Carvajal – President of the Dominican Republic
- Lionel Belasco – Trinidadian pianist, composer and bandleader, best known for his calypso recordings
- Rafael Cansinos-Asséns – Spanish poet, essayist, literary critic and translator
- William Carlos Williams – American poet[54]
- Pedro Henríquez Ureña – Dominican intellectual, essayist, philosopher, humanist, philologist and literary critic
- Amedeo Modigliani – Italian painter and sculptor
- Diego Rivera – Mexican painter[55]
- Fernando Pessoa – Portuguese poet and writer.[56]
- Vicente Lombardo Toledano – Mexican labor leader and philosopher[57]
- Julio Lobo – Cuban sugar trader and financier
- Frieda Belinfante – Dutch cellist
- Evaristo Sourdis Juliao – Colombian diplomat, politician and presidential candidate
- William Pereira – American futurist architect
- Frank Silvera – Jamaican-born American character actor and theatrical director
- Lawrence Ferlinghetti – American poet, painter, liberal activist and co-founder of City Lights Bookstore
- Emmy Lopes Dias – Dutch actress and activist
- Vic Seixas – tennis player
- Peter Sellers – British comic actor, 1st-cousin-4x-removed of boxer Daniel Mendoza
- Harry Belafonte – (born Harold George Bellanfanti Jr.), American singer, songwriter, activist, and actor
- Arie Pais – Dutch politician and economist
- Herberto Hélder – Portuguese poet[58]
- Pim de la Parra – Surinamese-Dutch film maker
- António Lobo Antunes – Portuguese novelist and medical doctor[59]
- Ricardo Maduro – President of Honduras and Bank of Honduras chairman
- Uri Coronel – Dutch sports director and chairman of Ajax Amsterdam
- Cecilia Álvarez-Correa – first female Minister of Transport of Colombia
- Ophir Pines-Paz – Israeli politician
- Nicolás Maduro – Venezuelan politician, President of Venezuela and former Vice President of Venezuela[60]
- Sean Paul (Henriques) – Jamaican dancehall musician.
Ver también
- Sephardim
- History of the Jews in Spain
- History of the Jews in Portugal
- Portuguese Inquisition
- History of the Jews in Morocco
- Sephardic Jews in the Netherlands
- History of the Marranos in England
- History of the Jews in Gibraltar
- History of the Jews in Jamaica
- History of the Jews in Barbados
- History of the Jews in Curaçao
- Maduro Holding
- Maduro & Curiel's Bank
- History of the Jews in Suriname
- Sephardic law and customs (for liturgy etc.)
- Lançados
Notas
- ^ "Edict of the Expulsion of the Jews (1492)"
- ^ Pérez, Joseph (2012) [2009]. History of a Tragedy. p. 17.
- ^ Harry Ojalvo. "Ottoman Sultans and Their Jewish Subjects". Foundation for the Advancement of Sephardic Studies and Culture.
- ^ Daniel J. Elazar. "Can Sephardic Judaism be Reconstructed?". Judaism: A Quarterly Journal of Jewish Life and Thought. 41 (3) – via Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs.
- ^ "The Jewish Profile of Former Conversos". worldhistory.biz. 29 May 2015.
- ^ "The Anumsim Restoring a Beloved Legacy" (PDF). The International Institute for "Secret Jews" Studies, Netanya Academic College.
- ^ "Responsa". Jewish Virtual Library.
- ^ "Virtual Jewish World: Recife, Brazil". Jewish Virtual Library.
- ^ "Virtual Jewish World: Spanish-Portuguese Nation of the Caribbeans: La Nacion". Jewish Virtual Library.
- ^ "Chuetas of Majorca recognized as Jewish"; The Jerusalem Post 07/12/2011
- ^ Moshe, ben Levi (2012). La Yeshivá Benei Anusim: El Manual de Estudios Para Entender las Diferencias Entre el Cristianismo y el Judaismo. Palibrio. p. 20. ISBN 9781463327064.
- ^ Raymond of Penyafort, Summa, lib. 1 p.33, citing D.45 c.5.
- ^ Netanyahu, Benzion (2002). The Origins of the Inquisition in Fifteenth Century Spain (2nd ed.). London: Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-0-940322-39-4.
- ^ An extreme rather than a typical example is Uriel da Costa.
- ^ This is the view of them taken in the rabbinic Responsa of the period.
- ^ Glick, Thomas F. (1998). "On Converso and Marrano Ethnicity". In Gampel, Benjamin (ed.). Crisis and Creativity in the Sephardi World (1391–1648). New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 59–76. ISBN 978-0-231-10922-2.
- ^ Melammed, Renee Levine (2005). A Question of Identity: Iberian Conversos in Historical Perspective. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-517071-9.
- ^ See also History of the Jews in Thessaloniki#Economic decline.
- ^ See Roman Catholicism in the Netherlands#History and Holland (Batavia) Mission.
- ^ "Belgium". Jewish Virtual Library.
- ^ "Norwegian-Jewish history before 1851". Olve Utne.
- ^ Henriques, The Jews and the English Law.
- ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 6 September 2015. Retrieved 9 September 2015.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link).
- ^ Society of Heshaim, London
- ^ "Semicha programme". The Montefiore Endowment.
- ^ "GOA". www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 21 August 2018.
- ^ Fischel, Walter J. (1956). "Leading Jews in the Service of Portuguese India". The Jewish Quarterly Review. 47 (1): 37–57. doi:10.2307/1453185. JSTOR 1453185.
- ^ Saraiva, Antonio (21 August 2018). "The Marrano Factory" (PDF). ebooks.rahnuma.org. Retrieved 21 August 2018.
- ^ "When Christian Power Was Arrayed Against a Judeo-Muslim Ideology | YaleGlobal Online". yaleglobal.yale.edu. Retrieved 22 August 2018.
- ^ Hayoun, Maurice R.; Limor, Ora; Stroumsa, Guy G.; Stroumsa, Gedaliahu A. G. (1996). Contra Iudaeos: Ancient and Medieval Polemics Between Christians and Jews. Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 9783161464829.
- ^ "Jews & New Christians in Portuguese Asia 1500-1700 Webcast | Library of Congress". www.loc.gov. Subrahmanyam, Sanjay. 5 June 2013. Retrieved 21 August 2018.CS1 maint: others (link)
- ^ "THE PORTUGUESE JEWISH COMMUNITY OF MADRAS, INDIA, IN THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY". sefarad.org. Retrieved 22 August 2018.
- ^ Fischel, Walter J. (1960). "The Jewish Merchant-Colony in Madras (Fort St. George) during the 17th and 18th Centuries: A Contribution to the Economic and Social History of the Jews in India". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. 3 (1): 78–107. doi:10.2307/3596030. JSTOR 3596030.
- ^ For the development of this pronunciation, see Aron di Leone Leoni, The Pronunciation of Hebrew in the Western Sephardic Settlements (16th-20th Centuries). Second Part: The Pronunciation of the Consonant 'Ayin.
- ^ This is corroborated by the frequent use, in Judaeo-Spanish, of ש without diacritic to mean Spanish s (to distinguish it from ç, rendered by ס). On the other hand, s is often pronounced [ʃ] in Portuguese.
- ^ The pronunciation of "g" as [χ] in Dutch was originally a peculiarity of Amsterdam: the historic pronunciation was [ɣ]. The use of [ɣ] for gimel rafé is found in other communities, e.g. among Syrian and Yemenite Jews. Coincidentally, "g" following a vowel is pronounced as the approximant consonant [ɣ˕] in modern Spanish (but not in Portuguese).
- ^ In the Tiberian vocalization segol is open [ɛ] and tzere is closed [e], like French é; while in Ashkenazi Hebrew tzere is often [ej] as in "they". In both Ashkenazi and modern Hebrew, vocal shva is the indistinct vowel in French "le" and English "the" and sometimes disappears altogether.
- ^ This rule forms part of the Tiberian vocalization reflected in works from the Masoretic period, and is laid down in grammatical works as late as Solomon Almoli's Halichot Sheva (Constantinople 1519), though he records that it is dying out and that "in most places" vocal shva is pronounced like segol.
- ^ For example the Provençal community of Comtat-Venaissin: see Louis Saladin, Canticum Hebraicum.
- ^ See for example Adler Israel, Hosha'ana Rabbah in Casale Monferrato 1732: Dove in the Clefts of the Rock, Jewish Music Research Center, Hebrew University of Jerusalem: Jerusalem 1990 (Yuval Music series Volume: 2)
- ^ Seroussi (in Bibliography).
- ^ Traditionally, an auditioning cantor in an Ashkenazi synagogue is asked to sing Kol Nidre, a solo piece demanding great vocal dexterity, range and emotional expression, while in a Sephardi synagogue he is asked to sing Bammeh madlikin, a plainsong recitative which demands accuracy more than anything else.
- ^ An example of this recitative style can be heard in the first part of the 2002 BBC TV serial Daniel Deronda, where (now emeritus) Reverend Halfon Benarroch can be heard chanting the psalms that begin the Afternoon Service.
- ^ Link to .pdf file; another link; on screen version. The book does not of course set out the tunes, but it names the songs that they were borrowed from.
- ^ In printed Hebrew Bibles, the Ten Commandments have two sets of cantillation marks: the ta'am 'elyon or "upper accentuation" for public reading and the ta'am taḥton or "lower accentuation" for private study. The term "High Tangamim" for the melody in question is borrowed from the ta'am 'elyon, for which it is used.
- ^ These passages are listed in Rodrigues Pereira, חָכְמַת שְׁלֹמֹה ('Hochmat Shelomoh) Wisdom of Solomon: Torah cantillations according to the Spanish and Portuguese custom. Many other Sephardic traditions use special melodies for these portions as well. However, the Spanish and Portuguese melody is different from most others. Anecdotally, the Spanish and Portuguese High Tangamim are similar to the melody of Kurdish Jews.
- ^ That is, the older melody used in Mosul and in most of the Iraqi Jewish diaspora, as distinct from the Baghdadi melody, which belongs to the Ottoman family: see Cantillation melodies and Sephardic cantillation.
- ^ Daily and Occasional Prayers vol. 1 p. 59.
- ^ Daily and Occasional Prayers vol. 1 p. 58.
- ^ Dates shown refer to the founding of the community rather than the synagogue building, unless shown otherwise. Italics mean community no longer exists.
- ^ Janani Sampath (10 May 2016). "Chennai's link to its Jewish past, cemetery in Mylapore fading into oblivion". DT Next.
- ^ Krithika Sundaram (31 October 2012). "18th century Jewish cemetery lies in shambles, craves for attention". The New Indian Express.
- ^ Aaron Nunez Cardozo, Jewish Virtual Library
- ^ "William Carlos Williams, The Art of Poetry No. 6, Interviewed by Stanley Koehler". The Paris Review. No. 32. Summer–Fall 1964.
- ^ Patrick Marnham (1998). Dreaming With His Eyes Open: A Life of Diego Rivera. Alfred A. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-679-43042-1. via The New York Times Books Online
- ^ Fernando Pessoa, Casa Fernando Pessoa
- ^ Eliseo Rangel Gaspar. Vicente Lombardo Toledano, El mexícano síngular (PDF).
- ^ Kevin Zdiara (26 March 2015). "Remembering Portugal's Jewish Prized Poet: Herberto Hélder's writing touched on the dark, mystic, and mythological". Tablet.
- ^ "Geography? It Doesn't Exist: Antonio Lobo Antunes with Alessandro Cassin". The Brooklyn Rail. 10 November 2008.
- ^ Michal Shmulovich (13 May 2013). "Venezuela's 'anti-Semitic' leader admits Jewish ancestry". The Times of Israel.
Bibliografía
General
- Altabé, David, Spanish and Portuguese Jewry before and after 1492: Brooklyn 1993
- Angel, Marc D., Remnant of Israel: A Portrait Of America's First Jewish Congregation: ISBN 978-1-878351-62-3
- Barnett, R. D., and Schwab, W., The Western Sephardim (The Sephardi Heritage Volume 2): Gibraltar Books, Northants., 1989
- Birmingham, S., The Grandees: America's Sephardic Elite: Syracuse 1971 repr. 1997 ISBN 978-0-8156-0459-4
- de Sola Pool, David and Tamar, An Old Faith in the New World: New York, Columbia University Press, 1955. ISBN 978-0-231-02007-7
- Dobrinsky, Herbert C.: A treasury of Sephardic laws and customs: the ritual practices of Syrian, Moroccan, Judeo-Spanish and Spanish and Portuguese Jews of North America. Revised ed. Hoboken, N.J.: KTAV; New York: Yeshiva Univ. Press, 1988. ISBN 978-0-88125-031-2
- Gubbay, Lucien and Levy, Abraham, The Sephardim: Their Glorious Tradition from the Babylonian Exile to the Present Day: paperback ISBN 978-1-85779-036-8; hardback ISBN 978-0-8276-0433-9 (a more general work but with notable information on the present day London S&P community)
- Hyamson, M., The Sephardim of England: A History of the Spanish and Portuguese Jewish Community 1492–1951: London 1951
- Katz and Serels (ed.), Studies on the History of Portuguese Jews: New York, 2004 ISBN 978-0-87203-157-9
- Laski, Neville, The Laws and Charities of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews' Congregation of London
- Meijer, Jaap (ed.), Encyclopaedia Sefardica Neerlandica: Uitgave van de Portugees-Israëlietische Gemeente: Amsterdam, 1949–1950 (2 vol., in Dutch): in alphabetical order, but only reaches as far as "Farar"
- Samuel, Edgar, At the End of the Earth: Essays on the history of the Jews in England and Portugal: London 2004 ISBN 978-0-902528-37-6
- Singerman, Robert, The Jews in Spain and Portugal: A Bibliography: 1975
- Singerman, Robert, Spanish and Portuguese Jewry: a classified bibliography: 1993 ISBN 978-0-313-25752-0
- Studemund-Halévy, Michael & Koj, P. (publ.), Sefarden in Hamburg: zur Geschichte einer Minderheit: Hamburg 1993–1997 (2 vol.)
Caribbean Jews
- Ezratty, Harry A., 500 Years in the Jewish Caribbean: The Spanish & Portuguese Jews in the West Indies, Omni Arts Publishers (November 2002); hardback ISBN 978-0-942929-18-8, paperback ISBN 978-0-942929-07-2
- Spanish and Portuguese Jews in the Caribbean and the Guianas: A Bibliography (Hardcover) John Carter Brown Library (June 1999) ISBN 978-0-916617-52-3
- Arbell, Mordechai, The Jewish Nation of the Caribbean: The Spanish-Portuguese Jewish Settlements in the Caribbean and the GuianasISBN 978-965-229-279-7
- Arbell, Mordechai, The Portuguese Jews of JamaicaISBN 978-976-8125-69-9
- Goldish, Josette Capriles, Once Jews: Stories of Caribbean Sephardim, Markus Weiner Publishers (2009) ISBN 978-1-55876-493-4
Synagogue Architecture
- Kadish, Sharman; Bowman, Barbara; and Kendall, Derek, Bevis Marks Synagogue 1701–2001: A Short History of the Building and an Appreciation of Its Architecture (Survey of the Jewish Built Heritage in the United Kingdom & Ireland): ISBN 978-1-873592-65-6
- Treasures of a London temple: A descriptive catalogue of the ritual plate, mantles and furniture of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews' Synagogue in Bevis Marks: London 1951 ASIN B0000CI83D
Law and ritual
- Brandon, I. Oëb, (tr. Elisheva van der Voort), Complete manual for the reader of the Portuguese Israelitic Congregation in Amsterdam: Curaçao 1989. (The Dutch original was handwritten in 1892 and printed as an appendix to Encyclopaedia Sefardica Neerlandica, above.)
- Peter Nahon, Le rite portugais à Bordeaux d’après son Seder ḥazanut, Librairie orientaliste Paul Geuthner : Paris, 2018 ISBN 978-2-7053-3988-3. Description and analysis of the Spanish and Portuguese liturgy of Bordeaux, France.
- Gaguine, Shem Tob, Keter Shem Tob, 7 vols (in Hebrew): ketershemtob.com, vols. 1–2, vol. 3, vol. 6, vol. 7
- Salomon, H. P., Het Portugees in de Esnoga van Amsterdam. (A Língua Portuguesa na Esnoga de Amesterdão): Amsterdam 2002 (in Dutch). Portuguese phrases used in the synagogue service, with a CD showing correct pronunciation.
- Whitehill, G. H., The Mitsvot of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews' Congregation, London (Sha'ar Hashamayim): A guide for Parnasim: London 1969
- Peri Ets Haim (ed. Isaac Haim Abendana de Britto): vol. 1, vol. 2, vol. 3, vol. 4, vol. 5, vol. 6 (vol. 2 of new series), vol. 7 (vol. 3 of new series), vol. 8 (vol. 4 of new series), vol. 9, vol. 10, vol. 11, vol. 12
- Hirsch, Menko Max, Frucht vom Baum des Lebens. Ozer Peroth Ez Chajim. Die Sammlung der Rechtsgutachten Peri Ez Chajim des Rabbinerseminars Ets Haim zu Amsterdam. Zeitlich geordnet, ins Deutsche übertragen und in gekürzter Form herausgegeben: Antwerp and Berlin 1936, German abstract of the rulings in Peri Ets Haim
- Dayan Toledano, Pinchas, Fountain of Blessings, Code of Jewish Law (four volumes), Mekor bracha: Jerusalem 2009.
- de Sola Pool, David, The Traditional Prayer Book for Sabbath and Festivals: Behrman House, 1960.
Reza books (siddurim)
Italy
- Venice edition, 1524: reproduced in photostat in Remer, Siddur and Sefer Tefillat Ḥayim, Jerusalem 2003
- Libro de Oraciones, Ferrara 1552 (Spanish only)
- Fiorentino, Salomone, Seder Tefilah סדר תפלה: Orazioni quotidiane per uso degli Ebrei Spagnoli e Portoghesi: questo volume contiene le tre orazioni giornaliere, quella del Sabbato e del capo di mese tradotte dall’idioma ebraico coll’aggiunta di alcune note e di qualche poetica versione Livorno, 1802.
- Fiorentino, Salomone, Seder Tefilah סדר תפלה: Orazioni quotidiane per uso degli ebrei spagnoli e portoghesi ... Vienna: Antonio Schmid, 1822.
- Fiorentino, Salomone, Seder Tefilah סדר תפלה: Orazioni quotidiane per uso degli ebrei spagnoli e portoghesi ... Livorno: Presso Natan Molco, 1825.
- Ottolenghi, Lazzaro E., Maḥzor le-yamim nora’im מחזור לימים נוראים: Orazioni ebraico-italiano per il capo d'anno e giorno dell;Espiazione: ad uso degli Israeliti Portoghesi e Spagnoli Livorno, 1821.
- Ottolenghi, Lazzaro E., Sefer Mo’ade H’: Orazioni ebraico-italiano per le tre annuali solennità: ad uso degli israeliti portoghesi e spagnoli Livorno, 1824.
France
- Venture, Mardochée, Prières Journalières à l'usage des Juifs portugais ou espagnols .. auxquelles on a ajoutés des notes élémentaires Nice, 1772.
- Venture, Mardochée, Prières des Jours du Ros-Haschana et du Jour de Kippour Nice 1773.
- Venture, Mardochée, Prières Journalières à l'usage des Juifs portugais ou espagnols .. traduites de l’hébreu: auxquelles on a ajoutés des notes élémentaires, nouvelle édition Paris: chez Lévy, 1807.
- Venture, Mardochée, Prières des Jours du Ros-Haschana et du Jour de Kippour, nouvelle édition Paris, 1807.
- Venture, Mardochée, Prières des Jours de Jeûnes de Guedalya, de Tebeth, d'Esther, de Tamouz et d’Ab Paris: chez Lévy, 1807.
- Venture, Mardochée, Prières des Fêtes de Pessah, Sebouhot, et de Souccot Paris: chez Lévy, 1807.
- Venture, Mardochée, Cantique des Cantique, avec la paraphrase chaldaïque, et traité d'Aboth ... précédé de la Haggada Paris: chez Lévy, 1807.
- Venture, Mardochée, Prières des jours de Rosch-haschana, à l’usage des Israélites du rit portugais, traduites de l’Hébreu avec des notes élémentaires déstinées à faciliter l’intelligence, par Mardochée Venture, nouvelle édition, première partie Paris: aux Bureaux des Archives Israélites, 1845.
- Venture, Mardochée, Prières du jour de Kippour à l’usage des Israélites, tr. par M. Venture, nouvelle édition, deuxième partie Paris: aux Bureaux des Archives Israélites, 1845.
- Venture, Mardochée, Prières des Fêtes de Pessah, Sebouhot, et de Souccot Paris, 2d ed., Paris: Lazard-Lévy, 1845.
- Créhange, Alexandre, מנחה חדשה: סדר תפלת ישראל כמנהג ספרד נעתקה ללשון צרפת על ידי אלכסנדר בן ברוך קריהנש: Offrande nouvelle: prières des Israélites du rite espangol et portugais, traduction de A. ben Baurch Créhange Paris, 1855.
- Créhange, Alexandre, Erech Hatephiloth où Prières des Grandes Fêtes à l’usage des Israélites du Rite Séfarad. Kippour. Léon Kaan éditeur, traduction française de A. Créhange Paris: Librairie Durlacher, 1925.
- Créhange, Alexandre, מחזור ליום כפורים זכור לאברהם: Rituel de Yom Kippour, rite séfarade, traduction française des prières par A. Créhange, Seli’hot, introduction et règles concernant Roche Hachana 4th ed. Paris: Les éditions Colbo, 1984.
- Créhange, Alexandre, מחזור לראש השנה זכור לאברהם: Rituel de Roche HaChana, rite séfarade, traduction française des prières par A. Créhange, transcription en caractères latine des principaux passages du Rituel, introduction et règles concernant le Yom Kippour 2d ed. Paris: Les éditions Colbo, 1984.
- Créhange, Alexandre, Rituel de Roche HaChana, rite séfarade, Editions du Scèptre, Colbo, 2006, ISBN 978-2-85332-171-6.
- Créhange, Alexandre, Rituel de Yom Kippour, rite séfarade 3rd ed., Editions du Scèptre, Colbo, 2006.
- Créhange, Alexandre, Rituel des Trois Fêtes, rite séfarade, Editions du Scèptre, Colbo, 2006, ISBN 978-2-85332-174-7.
Netherlands
- Menasseh ben Israel, Orden de Ros Asanah y Kipúr: Amsterdam 1630 (Spanish only)
- Seder ha-tefillot ke-minhag K"K Sefardim, with Dutch translation (S. Mulder): Amsterdam 1837
- Seder ha-mo'adim ke-minhag K"K Sefardim (festivals), with Dutch translation (S. Mulder): Amsterdam 1843
- Seder le-Rosh ha-Shanah ke-minhag K"K Sefardim (Rosh Hashanah), with Dutch translation (S. Mulder): Amsterdam 1849
- Seder le-Yom Kippur ke-minhag K"K Sefardim (Yom Kippur), with Dutch translation (S. Mulder): Amsterdam 1850
- Tefillat Kol Peh, ed. and tr. Ricardo: Amsterdam 1928, repr. 1950
English-speaking countries
- Isaac Nieto, Orden de las Oraciones de Ros-Ashanah y Kipur, London 1740
- Nieto, Orden de las Oraciones Cotidianas, Ros Hodes Hanuca y Purim, London 1771
- A. Alexander, 6 vols, London 1771–77, including:
- The Liturgy According to the Spanish and Portuguese Jews in Hebrew and English, as Publicly Read in the Synagogue, and Used By All Their Families (vol 3)
- The tabernacle service which are publicly read in the synagogue. By the Spanish and Portuguese Jews. And used by all families (vol 4)
- The Festival service which are publicly read in the synagogue by the Spanish and Portuguese Jews and used by all families
- Evening and morning service of the begining of the year, which are publicly read in the synagogue by the Spanish and Portuguese Jews, and used by all families
- The fasts days service. Which are publickly read in the synagogue. By the Spanish and Portuguese Jews and used by all families (vol 6)
- The Order of Forms of Prayer (6 vols.), David Levi: London 1789–96, repr. 1810
- Forms of Prayer According to the Custom of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews, D. A. de Sola, London 1836
- Siddur Sifte Tsaddikim, the Forms of Prayer According to the Custom of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews, Isaac Leeser, Philadelphia (6 vols.) 1837-8
- Forms of Prayer According to the Custom of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews, Abraham de Sola, Philadelphia 1878
- Book of Prayer of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews' Congregation, London (5 vols.), Moses Gaster, 1901
- Book of Prayer of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews' Congregation, London (5 vols.): Oxford (Oxford Univ. Press, Vivian Ridler), 5725/1965 (since reprinted)
- Book of Prayer: According to the Custom of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews, David de Sola Pool, New York: Union of Sephardic Congregations, 1954 (later edition 1979)
- Gaon, Solomon, Minhath Shelomo: a commentary on the Book of prayer of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews: New York 1990 (based on de Sola Pool edition)
- Daily and festival prayers books, Congregation Shearith Israel: New York. Published prayer books for the Spanish and Portuguese Congregation
Musical traditions
- Adler, Israel: Musical life and traditions of the Portuguese Jewish community of Amsterdam in the 18th century. (Yuval Monograph Series; v. 1.) Jerusalem: Magnes, 1974.
- Aguilar, Emanuel & De Sola, David A.:. טללי זמרה Sephardi melodies, being the traditional liturgical chants of the Spanish & Portuguese Jews’ Congregation London, London 1857. Second edition publ by the Society of Heshaim with the sanction of the Board of Elders of the Congregation, Oxford Univ. Press, 5691/1931.
- Kanter, Maxine Ribstein: “High Holy Day hymn melodies in the Spanish and Portuguese synagogues of London”, in Journal of Synagogue Music X (1980), No. 2, pp. 12–44
- Kramer, Leon & Guttmann, Oskar: Kol Shearit Yisrael: Synagogue Melodies Transcontinental Music Corporation, New York, 1942.
- Lopes Cardozo, Abraham: Sephardic songs of praise according to the Spanish-Portuguese tradition as sung in the synagogue and home. New York, 1987.
- Rodrigues Pereira, Martin: חָכְמַת שְׁלֹמֹה (‘Hochmat Shelomoh) Wisdom of Solomon: Torah cantillations according to the Spanish and Portuguese custom Tara Publications, 1994
- Seroussi, Edwin: Spanish-Portuguese synagogue music in nineteenth-century Reform sources from Hamburg: ancient tradition in the dawn of modernity. (Yuval Monograph Series; XI) Jerusalem: Magnes, 1996. ISSN 0334-3758
- Seroussi, Edwin: "Livorno: A Crossroads in the History of Sephardic Religious Music", from Horowitz and Orfali (ed.), The Mediterranean and the Jews: Society, Culture and Economy in Early Modern Times
- Swerling, Norman P.: Romemu-Exalt: the music of the Sephardic Jews of Curaçao. Tara Publications, 1997. ISBN 978-0-933676-79-4.
Discography
- Musiques de la Synagogue de Bordeaux: Patrimoines Musicaux Des Juifs de France (Buda Musique 822742), 2003.
- Talele Zimrah — Singing Dew: The Florence-Leghorn Jewish Musical Tradition (Beth Hatefutsot) 2002.
- Choral Music of Congregation Shearith Israel, Congregation Shearith Israel, 2003.
- Traditional Music of Congregation Shearith Israel (Shearith Israel League) 3 CD's.
- Jewish Voices in the New World: Chants and Prayers from the American Colonial Era: Miliken Archive (Naxos) 2003
- Sephardic Songs of Praise: Abraham L. Cardozo (Tara Publications)
- The Western Sefardi Liturgical Tradition: Abraham Lopes Cardozo (The Jewish Music Research Center- Hebrew University) 2004
- A Sephardi Celebration The Choir of the Spanish & Portuguese Jews' Congregation, London, Maurice Martin, Adam Musikant (The Classical Recording Company)
- Kamti Lehallel: I Rise in Praise, Daniel Halfon (Beth Hatefutsot) 2007
enlaces externos
Educational Institutions
- Ets Haim Library (Amsterdam)
- The Judith Lady Montefiore College (rabbinic training programme in London)
- Naima Jewish Preparatory School (London)
- Society of Heshaim, London
- Bet Midrash Nidhe Israel (Dominican Republic)
- La Nacao, a new site reviewing academic works on Western Sephardim
Musical and liturgical customs
Netherlands
- Amsterdam Portuguese Chazzanut: Spanish and Portuguese Chazzanut & Minhagim (Customs) in the Esnoga
United Kingdom
- Sephardi Centre Music Fund, London
- London Sephardi Music Recordings of the liturgical music of the Spanish and Portuguese Jews of London, Rabbi Jonathan Cohen
- Liturgical Music of Shaar Hashamayim Hazzanut recordings, Rev. Halfon Benarroch
- London Sephardi Congregational Melodies
- Spanish and Portuguese Torah melody, London style: musical notation only (includes instructions for downloading musical notation font)
France
- Liturgie Hebraïque du Rite Séfardi dit Portugais Bordeaux tradition
Italy
- Minhag Fiorentino Florence tradition (subscription only)
Americas
- Liturgical Music of Congregation Shearith Israel, New York
- Philadelphia: Mikveh Israel Music
- Mikveh Israel Hazzanut – Detailed, comprehensive compendium of liturgical customs throughout the year, including tunes and readings, for the Philadelphia and New York branches of the tradition.
- Yede Abraham – Hazzanut in the Spanish and Portuguese tradition (mostly New York and Philadelphia)
General
- S&P Central: An Information Hub for Spanish & Portuguese Jewish Communities, created by Joshua de Sola Mendes
Melodies
- Daniel Halfon, Hazan of Spanish and Portuguese Liturgical Music
- Taamim.org – S&P cantillation and Haftarah blessings on Taamim.org
Other
- Site of Hakham Yaaqob haLevi de Oliveira s"t, Israel
- Los cinco libros de la Sacra Ley translated to Spanish by Joseph Franco Serrano
- The Spanish and Portuguese Intellectual Tradition - bibliography and other resources