El anticatolicismo es la hostilidad hacia los católicos u oposición a la Iglesia católica , su clero y / o sus seguidores. [1] En varios puntos después de la Reforma , algunos estados mayoritarios protestantes , incluidos Inglaterra , Prusia , Escocia y los Estados Unidos , hicieron del anticatolicismo y la oposición al Papa y a los rituales católicos temas políticos importantes, y el sentimiento anticatólico que resultado de ello con frecuencia condujo a la discriminación religiosa contra las personas católicas (a quienes a menudo se hacía referencia de manera despectivacomo " papistas " o " romanistas ") en los países protestantes anglófonos . El historiador John Wolffe identifica cuatro tipos de anticatolicismo: constitucional-nacional, teológico, popular y sociocultural. [2]
Históricamente, se sospechaba con frecuencia que los católicos que vivían en países protestantes conspiraban contra el estado para promover los intereses papales. El apoyo al Papa extranjero llevó a acusaciones de que carecían de lealtad al estado. En la mayoría de los países protestantes que experimentaron una inmigración a gran escala, como los Estados Unidos y Australia , la sospecha de los inmigrantes católicos o la discriminación contra ellos a menudo se superponía o se combinaba con el nativismo , la xenofobia y los sentimientos etnocéntricos o racistas (es decir, anti-italianos , antiirlandeses). sentimiento , hispanofobia y sentimiento anti-eslavo (específicamente sentimiento anti-polaco ).
En el período moderno temprano , la Iglesia Católica luchó por mantener su papel religioso y político tradicional frente al creciente poder secular en los países católicos. Como resultado de estas luchas, surgió una actitud hostil hacia el considerable poder político, social, espiritual y religioso del Papa y del clero en forma de anticlericalismo . La Inquisición era un objetivo de ataque favorito. Después del estallido de la Revolución Francesa en 1789, las fuerzas anticlericales ganaron fuerza en algunas naciones principalmente católicas, como Francia , España , México y ciertas regiones de Italia (especialmente en Emilia-Romaña ). Partidos políticos que expresaron una actitud hostil hacia el considerable poder político, social, espiritual y religioso de la Iglesia Católica en forma de anticlericalismo, ataques al poder del Papa para nombrar obispos y ataques a las órdenes internacionales , especialmente los jesuitas. fueron formados. [3]
En países principalmente protestantes
Los reformadores protestantes , incluidos John Wycliffe , Martin Luther , Henry VIII , John Calvin , Thomas Cranmer , John Thomas , John Knox , Roger Williams , Cotton Mather y John Wesley , así como la mayoría de los protestantes de los siglos XVI al XIX, identificaron el papado. con el Anticristo . Los Centuriators of Magdeburg , un grupo de eruditos luteranos en Magdeburg encabezados por Matthias Flacius , escribieron los 12 volúmenes Magdeburg Centuries para desacreditar al papado y llevar a otros cristianos a reconocer al Papa como el Anticristo. La quinta ronda de conversaciones en el diálogo luterano-católico señala:
Al llamar al Papa el "Anticristo", los primeros luteranos se mantuvieron en una tradición que se remonta al siglo XI . No sólo los disidentes y herejes, sino incluso los santos [ cita requerida ] habían llamado al obispo de Roma el "Anticristo" cuando deseaban castigar su abuso de poder . Lo que los luteranos entendieron incorrectamente como un reclamo papal de autoridad ilimitada sobre todo y todos les recordó las imágenes apocalípticas de Daniel 11 , un pasaje que se había aplicado al Papa como el Anticristo de los últimos días incluso antes de la Reforma. [9]
Las obras doctrinales de la literatura publicadas por los luteranos , las iglesias reformadas , los presbiterianos , los bautistas , los anabautistas y los metodistas contienen referencias al Papa como el Anticristo, incluidos los artículos de Smalcald , artículo 4 (1537), [10] el Tratado. sobre el Poder y Primacía del Papa (1537), [11] la Confesión de Westminster , Artículo 25.6 (1646), y la Confesión de Fe Bautista de 1689 , Artículo 26.4. En 1754, John Wesley publicó sus Notas explicativas sobre el Nuevo Testamento , que actualmente es un estándar doctrinal oficial de la Iglesia Metodista Unida . En sus notas sobre el Libro del Apocalipsis (capítulo 13), comentó: "Toda la sucesión de Papas desde Gregorio VII son indudablemente Anticristos. Sin embargo, esto no obstaculiza, sino que el último Papa en esta sucesión será más eminentemente el Anticristo, el Hombre de pecado, añadiendo al de sus predecesores un grado peculiar de maldad desde el abismo ". [12] [13]
Refiriéndose al Libro del Apocalipsis, Edward Gibbon declaró que "La ventaja de convertir esas misteriosas profecías en contra de la Sede de Roma , inspiró a los protestantes con una veneración poco común por un aliado tan útil". [14] Los protestantes condenaron la política católica de celibato obligatorio para los sacerdotes. [15]
Durante la Era de la Ilustración , que abarcó los siglos XVII y XVIII, con su fuerte énfasis en la necesidad de tolerancia religiosa, la Inquisición fue un blanco de ataque favorito para los intelectuales. [dieciséis]
Imperio Británico
Gran Bretaña
El anticatolicismo institucional en Gran Bretaña e Irlanda comenzó con la Reforma inglesa bajo Enrique VIII . El Acta de Supremacía de 1534 declaró que la corona inglesa era 'el único líder supremo de la Iglesia en Inglaterra en la tierra' en lugar del Papa. Cualquier acto de lealtad a este último se consideraba una traición porque el papado afirmaba tener poder espiritual y político sobre sus seguidores. Fue bajo este acto que los santos Thomas More y John Fisher fueron ejecutados y se convirtieron en mártires de la fe católica.
La reina María , la hija de Enrique, era una católica devota y durante sus cinco años como reina (1553-1558) trató de revertir la Reforma. Se casó con el rey católico de España y ejecutó a líderes protestantes. Los protestantes la tacharon de "Bloody Mary". [17]
El anticatolicismo entre muchos de los ingleses no solo se basaba en su temor de que el Papa buscara volver a imponer la autoridad religioso-espiritual sobre Inglaterra, sino que también se basaba en su temor de que el Papa también buscara imponer un poder secular sobre ellos en alianza con sus miembros. archienemigos Francia y España. En 1570, el Papa Pío V trató de deponer a Isabel con la bula papal Regnans en Excelsis , que declaró que era una hereje y supuestamente disolvió el deber de todos los súbditos de Isabel de mantener su lealtad hacia ella. Esto hizo que los súbditos de Elizabeth que persistían en su lealtad a la Iglesia Católica fueran políticamente sospechosos, y también hizo que la posición de sus súbditos católicos fuera en gran medida insostenible si intentaban mantener ambas lealtades a la vez. Las Actas de Recusación , que hicieron del culto en la Iglesia Anglicana una obligación legal, se remontan al reinado de Isabel.
Los complots de asesinato en los que los católicos eran los principales impulsores alimentaron el anticatolicismo en Inglaterra. Estos complots incluyeron el famoso Complot de la pólvora , en el que Guy Fawkes y otros conspiradores conspiraron para hacer estallar el Parlamento inglés mientras estaba en sesión. [18] El " complot papista " ficticio que involucra a Titus Oates fue un engaño que muchos protestantes creían que era cierto, exacerbando las relaciones anglicano-católicas.
La Revolución Gloriosa de 1688-1689 implicó el derrocamiento del rey Jaime II, de la dinastía Estuardo, que favorecía a los católicos, y su reemplazo por un protestante holandés. Durante décadas, los Estuardo fueron apoyados por Francia en planes para invadir y conquistar Gran Bretaña, y el anticatolicismo persistió. [19]
Los disturbios de Gordon 1780
Los disturbios de Gordon de 1780 fueron una violenta protesta anticatólica en Londres contra la Ley de Papistas de 1778 , que tenía la intención de reducir la discriminación oficial contra los católicos británicos . Lord George Gordon , director de la Asociación Protestante advirtió que la ley permitiría a los católicos del ejército británico convertirse en una peligrosa amenaza. La protesta se convirtió en disturbios y saqueos generalizados. Los magistrados locales temían represalias y no emitieron la ley antidisturbios. No hubo represión hasta que el Ejército finalmente entró y comenzó a disparar, matando a cientos de manifestantes. La principal violencia duró del 2 de junio al 9 de junio de 1780. La opinión pública, especialmente en los círculos de clase media y élite, repudió el anticatolicismo y la violencia de las clases bajas y se unió al gobierno de Lord North. Se hicieron demandas para una fuerza policial de Londres. [20]
Siglo 19
Las largas y amargas guerras con Francia que duraron desde 1793 hasta 1815 (ver Guerras Revolucionarias Francesas y Guerras Napoleónicas ), vieron surgir el anticatolicismo como un método subyacente para ayudar a unir los diferentes reinos, sin embargo, Irlanda era abrumadoramente un Reino católico mayoritario y como Como resultado, su pueblo fue sometido a una opresión brutal, aparte de una pequeña minoría protestante. Desde las clases altas hasta las clases bajas, los protestantes se unieron desde Inglaterra y Escocia en una profunda desconfianza y disgusto por todo lo francés, esto no fue cierto para la mayoría católica en Irlanda que se veía a sí misma separada de sus hermanos católicos en el continente. Los católicos de Irlanda solicitaron ayuda militar de Francia y España en numerosas ocasiones para ayudar a liberarse de Gran Bretaña. Esa nación enemiga fue descrita como el hogar natural de la miseria y la opresión debido a su inherente incapacidad para deshacerse de la oscuridad de la superstición católica y la manipulación clerical. [21]
Los católicos en Irlanda obtuvieron el derecho al voto en la década de 1790, pero fueron políticamente inertes durante otras tres décadas. Finalmente, fueron movilizados por Daniel O'Connell en mayorías en la mayoría de los distritos parlamentarios irlandeses. Solo podían elegir, pero los católicos no podían sentarse en el parlamento. El tema de la emancipación católica se convirtió en una gran crisis. Los políticos anteriormente anticatólicos liderados por el duque de Wellington y Robert Peel se rebelaron para evitar la violencia masiva. Todos los católicos en Gran Bretaña fueron "emancipados" en la Ley de Ayuda Católica Romana de 1829 . Es decir, fueron liberados de la mayoría de las sanciones y restricciones que enfrentaron. Sin embargo, continuaron las actitudes anticatólicas. [22]
Desde 1945
Desde la Segunda Guerra Mundial, el sentimiento anticatólico en Inglaterra ha disminuido un poco. El diálogo ecuménico entre anglicanos y católicos culminó en la primera reunión de un arzobispo de Canterbury con un Papa desde la Reforma cuando el arzobispo Geoffrey Fisher visitó Roma en 1960. Desde entonces, el diálogo ha continuado a través de enviados y conferencias permanentes. Mientras tanto, tanto las iglesias inconformistas como la metodista como la establecida Iglesia de Inglaterra han disminuido drásticamente en número de miembros. La membresía católica en Gran Bretaña sigue creciendo, gracias a la inmigración de trabajadores irlandeses y, más recientemente, polacos. [23]
El conflicto y la rivalidad entre el catolicismo y el protestantismo desde la década de 1920, y especialmente desde la de 1960, se ha centrado en los disturbios de Irlanda del Norte . [24]
El anticatolicismo en Gran Bretaña estuvo representado durante mucho tiempo por la quema de una efigie del conspirador católico Guy Fawkes en las celebraciones generalizadas de la Noche de Guy Fawkes cada 5 de noviembre. [25] Sin embargo, esta celebración ha perdido la mayoría de sus connotaciones anticatólicas. En la actualidad, solo se encuentran débiles vestigios del anticatolicismo. [26]
Irlanda
Como castigo por la rebelión de 1641 , casi todas las tierras que eran propiedad de católicos irlandeses fueron confiscadas y entregadas a colonos protestantes . Según las leyes penales , ningún católico irlandés podía sentarse en el Parlamento de Irlanda , a pesar de que alrededor del 90% de la población de Irlanda era católica irlandesa nativa cuando se introdujo la primera de estas prohibiciones en 1691. [27] Se ha culpado a los conflictos entre católicos y protestantes. gran parte de " The Troubles ", la lucha en curso en Irlanda del Norte .
Los gobernantes protestantes ingleses mataron a miles de irlandeses (en su mayoría católicos) que se negaron a reconocer al gobierno y buscaron una alianza con la Francia católica , el gran enemigo de Inglaterra. El general Oliver Cromwell , dictador militar de Inglaterra (1653–58) lanzó un ataque militar a gran escala contra los católicos en Irlanda (1649–53). Frances Stewart explica: "Ante la perspectiva de una alianza irlandesa con Carlos II , Cromwell llevó a cabo una serie de masacres para someter a los irlandeses. Luego, una vez que Cromwell regresó a Inglaterra, el comisario inglés, el general Henry Ireton adoptó política de quema de cosechas y hambruna, que fue responsable de la mayoría de unas 600.000 muertes de una población irlandesa total de 1.400.000 ". [28]
Leyes que restringían los derechos de los católicos irlandeses
La Gran Hambruna de Irlanda se vio agravada por la imposición de leyes anticatólicas. En los siglos XVII y XVIII, las leyes penales prohibían a los católicos irlandeses comprar o arrendar tierras, votar, ocupar cargos políticos, vivir dentro de 5 millas (8 km) de una ciudad corporativa, obtener una educación, de entrar en una profesión y hacer muchas de las otras cosas que una persona debe hacer para tener éxito y prosperar en la sociedad. [29] Las leyes habían sido reformadas en gran parte en 1793, y en 1829, los católicos irlandeses pudieron volver a sentarse en el parlamento tras el Acta de Emancipación .
Irlanda del Norte
El estado de Irlanda del Norte nació en 1921, tras la Ley del Gobierno de Irlanda de 1920 . Aunque los católicos eran mayoría en la isla de Irlanda, que comprendían el 73,8% de la población en 1911, eran un tercio de la población de Irlanda del Norte.
En 1934, Sir James Craig , el primer Primer Ministro de Irlanda del Norte , dijo: "Desde que asumimos el cargo, hemos tratado de ser absolutamente justos con todos los ciudadanos de Irlanda del Norte ... Ellos todavía se jactan de que Irlanda del Sur es un Estado católico. . De lo único que me jacto es de que somos un Parlamento Protestante y un Estado Protestante ".
En 1957, Harry Midgley , el Ministro de Educación de Irlanda del Norte, dijo en Portadown Orange Hall: "Toda la minoría son traidores y siempre han sido traidores al Gobierno de Irlanda del Norte".
El primer católico en ser nombrado ministro en Irlanda del Norte fue el Dr. Gerard Newe , en 1971.
Canadá
Los temores de la Iglesia Católica eran bastante fuertes en el siglo XIX, especialmente entre los presbiterianos y otros inmigrantes irlandeses protestantes en todo Canadá. [30]
En 1853, los disturbios de Gavazzi dejaron 10 muertos en Quebec a raíz de las protestas católicas irlandesas contra los discursos anticatólicos del ex monje Alessandro Gavazzi . [31] [32] El periódico más influyente de Canadá, The Globe of Toronto, fue editado por George Brown , un inmigrante presbiteriano de Irlanda que ridiculizó y denunció a la Iglesia Católica, jesuitas , sacerdotes, conventos, etc. [33] Protestantes irlandeses siguió siendo una fuerza política hasta el siglo XX. Muchos pertenecían a la Orden de Orange , [30] una organización anticatólica con capítulos en todo Canadá que fue más poderosa a finales del siglo XIX. [34] [35]
Un líder clave fue Dalton McCarthy (1836-1898), un protestante que había inmigrado de Irlanda. A finales del siglo XIX movilizó a los irlandeses protestantes o "Orange" y luchó ferozmente contra los católicos irlandeses y contra los católicos franceses. Participó especialmente en una cruzada por la abolición del idioma francés en las escuelas de Manitoba y Ontario. [36]
Escuelas de francés en Canadá
Uno de los temas más controvertidos fue el apoyo público a las escuelas católicas de lengua francesa. Aunque el Acuerdo de la Confederación de 1867 garantizó el estatus de las escuelas católicas cuando fueron legalizadas por los gobiernos provinciales, surgieron disputas en numerosas provincias, especialmente en la Cuestión de las Escuelas de Manitoba en la década de 1890 y en Ontario en la década de 1910. [37] En Ontario, el Reglamento 17 era un reglamento del Ministerio de Educación de Ontario que restringía el uso del francés como idioma de instrucción a los dos primeros años de escolaridad. El Canadá francés reaccionó con vehemencia y perdió, condenando a sus escuelas católicas de lengua francesa. Esta fue una de las principales razones de la distancia entre el Canadá francés y el esfuerzo de la Primera Guerra Mundial , ya que sus jóvenes se negaron a alistarse. [38]
Los elementos protestantes lograron bloquear el crecimiento de las escuelas públicas católicas de lengua francesa. Sin embargo, los católicos irlandeses apoyaron en general la posición del idioma inglés defendida por los protestantes. [39]
Terranova
Terranova experimentó durante mucho tiempo tensiones sociales y políticas entre la gran clase trabajadora católica irlandesa, por un lado, y la élite anglicana, por el otro. [40] En la década de 1850, el obispo católico organizó su rebaño y los convirtió en incondicionales del Partido Liberal. La retórica desagradable fue el estilo predominante en las elecciones; Los disturbios sangrientos fueron comunes durante las elecciones de 1861. [41] Los protestantes eligieron por estrecho margen a Hugh Hoyles como primer ministro conservador. Hoyles revirtió inesperadamente su largo historial de activismo protestante militante y trabajó para calmar las tensiones. Compartió patrocinio y poder con los católicos; todos los trabajos y el patrocinio se dividieron entre los diversos cuerpos religiosos sobre una base per cápita. Este "compromiso denominacional" se extendió aún más a la educación cuando todas las escuelas religiosas se establecieron sobre la base que los católicos habían disfrutado desde la década de 1840. Solo en Norteamérica, Terranova tenía un sistema de escuelas denominacionales financiado por el estado. El compromiso funcionó y la política dejó de ser religión y pasó a preocuparse por cuestiones puramente políticas y económicas. [42]
Australia
La presencia del catolicismo en Australia se produjo con la llegada en 1788 de la Primera Flota de barcos de convictos británicos a Sydney. Las autoridades coloniales bloquearon la presencia clerical católica hasta 1820, lo que refleja las discapacidades legales de los católicos en Gran Bretaña. Algunos de los convictos irlandeses habían sido trasladados a Australia por delitos políticos o rebelión social y las autoridades seguían sospechando de la religión minoritaria. [43]
Los convictos católicos fueron obligados a asistir a los servicios de la Iglesia de Inglaterra y sus hijos y huérfanos fueron criados como anglicanos. [44] Los primeros sacerdotes católicos que llegaron llegaron como convictos tras la rebelión irlandesa de 1798 . En 1803, un tal P. Dixon fue emancipado condicionalmente y se le permitió celebrar la misa, pero después de la rebelión de Castle Hill dirigida por Irlanda de 1804, el permiso de Dixon fue revocado. El P. Jeremiah Flynn , un cisterciense irlandés , fue nombrado Prefecto Apostólico de Nueva Holanda y partió sin ser invitado desde Gran Bretaña hacia la colonia. Observado por las autoridades, Flynn desempeñó en secreto deberes sacerdotales antes de ser arrestado y deportado a Londres. La reacción al asunto en Gran Bretaña llevó a que se permitiera a dos sacerdotes más viajar a la colonia en 1820. [43] La Iglesia de Inglaterra fue disuelta en la Colonia de Nueva Gales del Sur por la Ley de la Iglesia de 1836 . Redactada por el fiscal general católico John Plunkett , la ley estableció la igualdad legal para anglicanos, católicos y presbiterianos y luego se extendió a los metodistas. [45]
A finales del siglo XIX, aproximadamente una cuarta parte de la población de Australia eran australianos irlandeses . [46] Muchos descendían de los 40.000 católicos irlandeses que fueron transportados como convictos a Australia antes de 1867. La mayoría eran protestantes británicos e irlandeses. [ cita requerida ] Los católicos dominaban los sindicatos y el Partido Laborista. El crecimiento de los sistemas escolares a fines del siglo XIX generalmente involucró problemas religiosos, enfrentando a protestantes contra católicos. El tema de la independencia de Irlanda fue durante mucho tiempo un tema delicado, hasta que el asunto fue resuelto por la Guerra de Independencia de Irlanda . [47]
La libertad limitada de creencias está protegida por la Sección 116 de la Constitución de Australia , pero el sectarismo en Australia fue prominente (aunque generalmente no violento) en el siglo XX, estallando durante la Primera Guerra Mundial , reflejando nuevamente el lugar de Irlanda dentro del Imperio y la minoría católica. permaneció sujeto a discriminación y sospecha. [48] Durante la Primera Guerra Mundial, los irlandeses apoyaron el esfuerzo bélico y comprendieron el 20% del ejército en Francia. [49] Sin embargo, los sindicatos y los irlandeses en particular, se opusieron firmemente al reclutamiento y, en alianza con agricultores de ideas afines, lo derrotaron en plebiscitos nacionales en 1916 y 1917 . Los anglicanos en particular hablaron de la "deslealtad" católica. [50] En la década de 1920, Australia tuvo su primer primer ministro católico . [51]
Durante la década de 1950, la división en el Partido Laborista Australiano entre aliados y oponentes del católico anticomunista BA Santamaria significó que el partido (en Victoria y Queensland más que en cualquier otro lugar) se dividió efectivamente entre elementos pro católicos y anticatólicos. Como resultado de tal desunión, la ALP fue derrotada en todas las elecciones nacionales entre 1955 y 1972. A fines del siglo XX, la Iglesia Católica reemplazó a la Iglesia Anglicana como el cuerpo cristiano individual más grande de Australia ; y sigue siéndolo en el siglo XXI, aunque todavía tiene menos miembros que las diversas iglesias protestantes juntas.
Si bien las divisiones sectarias más antiguas disminuyeron, los comentaristas han observado un resurgimiento del anticatolicismo en Australia en las últimas décadas en medio de un creciente secularismo y movimientos anticristianos más amplios . [52] [53] [54] [55]
Nueva Zelanda
Según el historiador neozelandés Michael King , la situación en Nueva Zelanda nunca ha sido tan clara como en Australia. Los católicos llegaron por primera vez a Nueva Zelanda en 1769, y la Iglesia ha tenido una presencia continua en el país desde el momento del asentamiento permanente de los católicos irlandeses en la década de 1820, con los primeros maoríes convertidos al catolicismo en la década de 1830. [56] La firma del Tratado de Waitangi en 1840, que formalizó el estatus de Nueva Zelanda como colonia británica e instigó una inmigración sustancial de Inglaterra y Escocia , dio como resultado que el país desarrollara un carácter religioso predominantemente protestante . No obstante, el obispo francés Jean Baptiste Pompallier pudo negociar la inclusión de una cláusula que garantice la libertad de religión en el tratado. [57] Cierta violencia sectaria fue evidente en Nueva Zelanda a finales del siglo XIX y principios del XX. [ cita requerida ]
Nueva Zelanda ha tenido varios primeros ministros católicos , lo que es indicativo de la amplia aceptación del catolicismo dentro del país; Jim Bolger , quien dirigió el Cuarto Gobierno Nacional de la década de 1990, fue el cuarto primer ministro católico del país; Bill English , quien dirigió el Quinto Gobierno Nacional de 2016 a 2017, fue el quinto y más reciente. Probablemente el más notable de los primeros ministros católicos de Nueva Zelanda fue Michael Joseph Savage , un sindicalista y reformador social nacido en Australia que instigó numerosas políticas progresistas como líder del Primer Gobierno Laborista de la década de 1930.
imperio Alemán
La unificación en el Imperio Alemán en 1871 vio un país con una mayoría protestante y una gran minoría católica, que hablaba alemán o polaco. El anticatolicismo era común. [58] El poderoso canciller alemán Otto von Bismarck, un devoto luterano, forjó una alianza con liberales seculares en 1871-1878 para lanzar una Kulturkampf (literalmente, "lucha cultural") especialmente en Prusia, el estado más grande del nuevo Imperio alemán para destruir el poder político de la Iglesia Católica y del Papa. Los católicos eran numerosos en el sur (Baviera, Baden-Wuerttemberg) y el oeste (Renania) y se defendieron. Bismarck pretendía acabar con la lealtad de los católicos a Roma ( ultramontanismo ) y subordinar a todos los alemanes al poder de su estado.
Los sacerdotes y obispos que se resistieron a la Kulturkampf fueron arrestados o destituidos de sus cargos. En el apogeo de la legislación anticatólica, la mitad de los obispos prusianos estaban en prisión o en el exilio, una cuarta parte de las parroquias no tenían sacerdote, la mitad de los monjes y monjas habían abandonado Prusia, un tercio de los monasterios y conventos estaban cerrados, 1800. los párrocos fueron encarcelados o exiliados, y miles de laicos fueron encarcelados por ayudar a los sacerdotes. [59] Había elementos anti-polacos en la Gran Polonia y Silesia. [60] Los católicos se negaron a cumplir; fortalecieron su Partido del Centro.
Pío IX murió en 1878 y fue reemplazado por el Papa León XIII, más conciliador, quien negoció la mayoría de las leyes anticatólicas a partir de 1880. El propio Bismark rompió con los liberales anticatólicos y trabajó con el Partido del Centro Católico para luchar contra el socialismo. [61] [62] El Papa León declaró oficialmente el fin de la Kulturkampf el 23 de mayo de 1887.
Alemania nazi
La Iglesia católica enfrentó la represión en la Alemania nazi (1933-1945). Hitler despreciaba a la Iglesia aunque se había criado en un hogar católico. El objetivo a largo plazo de los nazis era descristianizar a Alemania y restaurar el paganismo germánico . [63] [64] [65] [66] [67] [68] [69] [70] [71] Richard J. Evans escribe que Hitler creía que a largo plazo el nacionalsocialismo y la religión no serían capaces de co -existir, y subrayó repetidamente que el nazismo era una ideología secular, fundada en la ciencia moderna: "La ciencia, declaró, destruiría fácilmente los últimos vestigios de superstición que quedan". Alemania no podía tolerar la intervención de influencias extranjeras como el Papa y "Los sacerdotes, dijo, eran 'bichos negros', 'abortos con sotanas negras'". [72] La ideología nazi deseaba la subordinación de la Iglesia al Estado y no podía aceptar un establecimiento autónomo, cuya legitimidad no provenía del gobierno. [73] Desde el principio, la Iglesia Católica se enfrentó a la persecución general, la reglamentación y la opresión. [74] Radicales anti-Iglesia agresivos como Alfred Rosenberg y Martin Bormann vieron el conflicto con las Iglesias como una preocupación prioritaria, y los sentimientos anti-Iglesia y anti-clerical eran fuertes entre los activistas del partido de base. [75] Para muchos nazis, los católicos eran sospechosos de un patriotismo insuficiente, o incluso de deslealtad a la Patria, y de servir a los intereses de "fuerzas alienígenas siniestras". [76]
Adolf Hitler tenía cierto respeto por el poder organizativo del catolicismo, pero hacia sus enseñanzas no mostró nada más que la hostilidad más aguda, llamándolas "el cultivo sistemático del fracaso humano": [77] Para Hitler, el cristianismo era una religión que sólo encajaba para los esclavos y detestaba su ética. Alan Bullock escribió: "Su enseñanza, declaró, era una rebelión contra la ley natural de selección por lucha y la supervivencia del más apto ". Por razones políticas, Hitler estaba dispuesto a refrenar su anticlericalismo, viendo peligro en el fortalecimiento de la Iglesia persiguiéndola, pero tenía la intención de emprender un enfrentamiento contra ella después de la guerra. [78] Joseph Goebbels, el ministro de Propaganda, encabezó la persecución nazi del clero católico y escribió que había "una oposición insoluble entre el cristianismo y una cosmovisión heroica alemana". [75] El diputado elegido por Hitler, Martin Bormann, era un rígido guardián de la ortodoxia nazi y veía el cristianismo y el nazismo como "incompatibles", al igual que el filósofo nazi oficial, Alfred Rosenberg , quien escribió en Myth of the Twentieth Century (1930) que el La Iglesia católica se contaba entre los principales enemigos de los alemanes. [79] [80] [81] En 1934, el Sanctum Officium colocó el libro de Rosenberg en el Index Librorum Prohibitorum (lista de libros prohibidos de la Iglesia) por despreciar y rechazar "todos los dogmas de la Iglesia Católica, de hecho, los mismos fundamentos del cristianismo religión". [82]
Los nazis reclamaron jurisdicción sobre todas las actividades colectivas y sociales, interfiriendo con la educación católica, los grupos de jóvenes, los clubes de trabajadores y las sociedades culturales. [83] Hitler se movió rápidamente para eliminar catolicismo político , deteniendo a los miembros de la alineados Católica del partido del pueblo bávaro de personas y Partido del Centro Católico , que dejó de existir a principios de julio de 1933. Vice Canciller Papen Mientras tanto, en medio de continua abuso sexual del clero y organizaciones Católica, negoció un concordato del Reich con la Santa Sede, que prohibía al clero participar en política. [84] [85] Hitler procedió a cerrar todas las instituciones católicas cuyas funciones no eran estrictamente religiosas: [86]
Rápidamente se hizo evidente que [Hitler] tenía la intención de encarcelar a los católicos, por así decirlo, en sus propias iglesias. Podían celebrar la misa y conservar sus rituales tanto como quisieran, pero de lo contrario no podrían tener nada que ver con la sociedad alemana. Se cerraron escuelas y periódicos católicos y se lanzó una campaña de propaganda contra la iglesia.
- Extracto de An Honorable Derrota de Anton Gill
Casi inmediatamente después de acordar el Concordato, los nazis promulgaron su ley de esterilización, una política ofensiva a los ojos de la Iglesia católica y se movieron para disolver la Liga Juvenil Católica. El clero, las monjas y los líderes laicos comenzaron a ser blanco de ataques, lo que provocó miles de arrestos en los años siguientes, a menudo por acusaciones falsas de contrabando de divisas o "inmoralidad". [87] En la purga de Hitler La noche de los cuchillos largos , Erich Klausener , el jefe de Acción Católica , fue asesinado. [88] Adalbert Probst , director nacional de la Asociación Católica de Deportes Juveniles, Fritz Gerlich , editor del semanario católico de Munich y Edgar Jung , uno de los autores del discurso de Marburgo , estaban entre las otras figuras católicas de la oposición asesinadas en la purga. [89]
En 1937, la jerarquía de la Iglesia en Alemania, que inicialmente había intentado cooperar con el nuevo gobierno, se había desilusionado mucho. En marzo, el Papa Pío XI publicó la encíclica Mit brennender Sorge , acusando a los nazis de violaciones del Concordato y de sembrar "la cizaña de la sospecha, la discordia, el odio, la calumnia, la hostilidad fundamental secreta y abierta hacia Cristo y su Iglesia". El Papa notó en el horizonte las "nubes de tormenta amenazantes" de las guerras religiosas de exterminio en Alemania. [87] Los nazis respondieron con una intensificación de la lucha de la Iglesia . [75] Hubo arrestos masivos de clérigos y las prensas de la Iglesia fueron expropiadas. [90] Goebbels renovó la represión y la propaganda del régimen contra los católicos. Para 1939, todas las escuelas confesionales católicas se habían disuelto o convertido en instalaciones públicas. [91] Para 1941, toda la prensa de la Iglesia había sido prohibida.
Las protestas católicas posteriores incluyeron la carta pastoral del 22 de marzo de 1942 de los obispos alemanes sobre "La lucha contra el cristianismo y la Iglesia". [92] Aproximadamente el 30 por ciento de los sacerdotes católicos fueron disciplinados por la policía durante la era nazi. [93] En un esfuerzo por contrarrestar la fuerza y la influencia de la resistencia espiritual, los servicios de seguridad monitorearon muy de cerca al clero católico, instruyendo a que los agentes monitoreen cada diócesis, que se obtengan los informes de los obispos al Vaticano y que se descubran y descubran las actividades de los obispos. informó. [94] Los sacerdotes eran frecuentemente denunciados, arrestados o enviados a campos de concentración, muchos de ellos a los cuarteles dedicados al clero en Dachau. De un total de 2.720 clérigos encarcelados en Dachau, unos 2.579 (o el 94,88%) eran católicos. [95] La política nazi hacia la Iglesia fue más severa en los territorios que anexó a la Gran Alemania, donde los nazis se propusieron desmantelar sistemáticamente la Iglesia, arrestando a sus líderes, exiliando a sus clérigos, cerrando sus iglesias, monasterios y conventos. Muchos clérigos fueron asesinados. [96] [97] [98]
Países Bajos
La independencia de los Países Bajos del dominio español condujo a la formación de un país de mayoría protestante en el que la forma dominante de protestantismo era el calvinismo . En Ámsterdam, los sacerdotes católicos fueron expulsados de la ciudad, [99] y Tras la toma de posesión holandesa, todas las iglesias católicas se convirtieron en iglesias protestantes, [100] [101] La relación de Ámsterdam con la Iglesia católica no se normalizó hasta el siglo XX. [102]
países nórdicos
Norway
After the dissolution of Denmark-Norway in 1814, the new Norwegian Constitution of 1814, did not grant religious freedom, as it stated that both Jews and Jesuits were denied entrance to the Kingdom of Norway. It also stated that attendance in a Lutheran church was compulsory, effectively banning Catholics. The ban on Catholicism was lifted in 1842, and the ban on Jews was lifted in 1851. At first, there were multiple restrictions on the practice of Catholicism by Norwegians and only foreign citizens were freely allowed to practice it. The first post-reformation parish was founded in 1843, Catholics were only allowed to celebrate Mass in this one parish. In 1845 most of the restrictions on the practice of non-Lutheran Christianity were lifted, and Catholics were now allowed to freely practice their religion, but Monasticism and the Jesuits were not allowed in the country until 1897 and 1956 respectively.[103]
Swedish Empire
During the period of great power in Sweden, conversions to Catholicism were punished with fines or imprisonment and in exceptional cases, death. Sweden during the Thirty Years War saw itself as the protector of Protestantism in all of Europe against the pope. The March 20, 1600 Linköping Bloodbath saw several prominent Catholic nobles beheaded by order of King Charles IX of Sweden. The executions were partially motivated by the Polish invasion of Sweden and a threat of a potential Catholic takeover under Polish king Sigismund III Vasa, who planned to reconvert Sweden back to Catholicism. The Battle of Stångebro prevented Sigismund from conquering and violently reconverting Sweden. Catholic nobles were put in a majority of leading positions by Sigismund In the Swedish government without the approval of the Swedish people or parliament. The conspiracy provoked new laws preventing Catholics from holding leading government positions in the Swedish government. Due to the Austrian emperor winning a lot of great victories before Sweden joined. The war and Swedish successes cemented Protestantism's continued survival and the following anti-Catholicism ingrained in the religion.
Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden was known as the lion from the North. He did prevent the pillaging of Catholic villages of Swedish troops by proclaiming Protestant moral superiority in 1631, while Catholic armies were plundering Saxony. He did not wear any armour during the Battle of Rain against the Catholics and proclaimed he was divinely chosen by God to lead the Protestants to glory. He, therefore, needed no protection in battle. [104] [105] Russian orthodox populations had the right to practice their faith since their incorporation in 1617 after the Ingrian war and never faced similar persecution. Even after Eastern Orthodoxy was legalized there remained an extreme anti-Catholic sentiment in Sweden which was widely supported by German nobility and German Protestants in Swedish territories.
Only in 1781 did Catholics have the right to worship once again in Sweden the latest of all major religions except Judaism that was legalized in the same era. Even though Judaism had already been in practice tolerated since Charles XII of Sweden brought Muslim and Jewish advisors with him from the Ottoman Empire.[106] While Protestant Swedes could not join any other religious organization until 1873 still in 1849 catholic converts were punished with imprisonment. Conversion to Catholicism was punished with fines or imprisonment even after the reform. [107] Catholics could not become a minister of the Swedish government or work as teachers or nurses in Sweden until 1951. [108]
United States
John Higham described anti-Catholicism as "the most luxuriant, tenacious tradition of paranoiac agitation in American history."[109]
- Jenkins, Philip. The New Anti-Catholicism: The Last Acceptable Prejudice (Oxford University Press, New ed. 2004). British anti-Catholicism was exported to the United States. Two types of anti-Catholic rhetoric existed in colonial society. The first, which was derived from the heritage of the Protestant Reformation and the religious wars of the sixteenth century, consisted of the "Anti-Christ" and the "Whore of Babylon" variety and it dominated Anti-Catholic thought until the late seventeenth century. The second was a more secular variety which focused on the supposed intrigue of the Catholics and accused them of plotting to extendmedieval despotism worldwide.[110]
Historian Arthur Schlesinger Sr. has called Anti-Catholicism "the deepest-held bias in the history of the American people".[111]
Historian Joseph G. Mannard says that wars reduced anti-Catholicism: "enough Catholics supported the War for Independence to erase many old myths about the inherently treasonable nature of Catholicism....During the Civil War the heavy enlistments of Irish and Germans into the Union Army helped to dispel notions of immigrant and Catholic disloyalty."[110]
Colonial era
American anti-Catholicism has its origins in the Protestant Reformation which generated anti-Catholic propaganda for various political and dynastic reasons. Because the Protestant Reformation justified itself as an effort to correct what it perceived were the errors and the excesses of the Catholic Church, it formed strong positions against the Catholic bishops and the Papacy in particular. These positions were brought to New England by English colonists who were predominantly Puritans. They opposed not only the Catholic Church but also the Church of England which, due to its perpetuation of some Catholic doctrines and practices, was deemed insufficiently "reformed". Furthermore, English and Scottish identity to a large extent was based on opposition to Catholicism. "To be English was to be anti-Catholic," writes Robert Curran.[112]
Because many of the British colonists, such as the Puritans and Congregationalists, were fleeing religious persecution by the Church of England, much of early American religious culture exhibited the more extreme anti-Catholic bias of these Protestant denominations. Monsignor John Tracy Ellis wrote that a "universal anti-Catholic bias was brought to Jamestown in 1607 and vigorously cultivated in all the thirteen colonies from Massachusetts to Georgia".[113] Colonial charters and laws often contained specific proscriptions against Catholics. For example, the second Massachusetts charter of October 7, 1691, decreed "that forever hereafter there shall be liberty of conscience allowed in the worship of God to all Christians, except Papists, inhabiting, or which shall inhabit or be resident within, such Province or Territory".[114] Historians have identified only one Catholic living in colonial Boston--Ann Glover. She was hanged as a witch in 1688, shortly before the much more famous witchcraft trials in nearby Salem.[115]
Monsignor Ellis noted that a common hatred of the Catholic Church could unite Anglican clerics and Puritan ministers despite their differences and conflicts. One of the Intolerable Acts passed by the British Parliament that helped fuel the American Revolution was the Quebec Act of 1774, which granted freedom of worship to Roman Catholics in Canada.[116]
New nation
The Patriot reliance on Catholic France for military, financial and diplomatic aid led to a sharp drop in anti-Catholic rhetoric. Indeed, the king replaced the pope as the demon patriots had to fight against. Anti-Catholicism remained strong among Loyalists, some of whom went to Canada after the war while most remained in the new nation. By the 1780s, Catholics were extended legal toleration in all of the New England states that previously had been so hostile. "In the midst of war and crisis, New Englanders gave up not only their allegiance to Britain but one of their most dearly held prejudices."[117]
George Washington was a vigorous promoter of tolerance for all religious denominations as commander of the army (1775-1783) where he suppressed anti-Catholic celebrations in the Army and appealed to French Catholics in Canada to join the American Revolution; a few hundred of them did. Likewise he guaranteed a high degree of freedom of religion as president (1789-1797), when he often attended services of different denominations.[118] The military alliance with Catholic France in 1778 changed attitudes radically in Boston. Local leaders enthusiastically welcomed French naval and military officers, realizing the alliance was critical to winning independence. The Catholic chaplain of the French army reported in 1781 that he was continually receiving "new civilities" from the best families in Boston; he also noted that "the people in general retain their own prejudices." By 1790, about 500 Catholics in Boston formed the first Catholic Church there.[119]
Fear of the pope agitated some of America's Founding Fathers. For example, in 1788, John Jay urged the New York Legislature to prohibit Catholics from holding office. The legislature refused, but did pass a law designed to reach the same goal by requiring all office-holders to renounce foreign authorities "in all matters ecclesiastical as well as civil".[120] Thomas Jefferson, looking at the Catholic Church in France, wrote, "History, I believe, furnishes no example of a priest-ridden people maintaining a free civil government",[121] and "In every country and in every age, the priest has been hostile to liberty. He is always in alliance with the despot, abetting his abuses in return for protection to his own."[122]
1840s–1850s
Anti-Catholic fears reached a peak in the nineteenth century when the Protestant population became alarmed by the influx of Catholic immigrants. Some Protestant ministers preached the belief that the Catholic Church is the Whore of Babylon which is described in the Book of Revelation.[123] The resulting "nativist" movement, which achieved prominence in the 1840s, was whipped into a frenzy of anti-Catholicism that led to mob violence, most notably the Philadelphia Nativist Riot of 1844. Historian David Montgomery argues that the Irish Catholic Democrats in Philadelphia had successfully appealed to the upper-class Whig leadership. The Whigs wanted to split the Democratic coalition, so they approved Bishop Kendrick's request that Catholic children be allowed to use their own Bible. That approval outraged the evangelical Protestant leadership, which rallied its support in Philadelphia and nationwide. Montgomery states:
- The school controversy, however, had united 94 leading clergymen of the city in a common pledge to strengthen Protestant education and "awaken the attention of the community to the dangers which... threaten these United States from the assaults of Romanism." The American Tract Society took up the battle cry and launched a national crusade to save the nation from the "spiritual despotism" of Rome. The whole Protestant edifice of churches, Bible societies, temperance societies, and missionary agencies was thus interposed against Catholic electoral maneuvers ...at the very moment when those maneuvers were enjoying some success. [124]
The nativist movement found expression in a national political movement called the "American" or Know-Nothing Party of 1854–56. It had considerable success in local and state elections in 1854-55 by emphasizing nativism and warning against Catholics and immigrants. It nominated former president Millard Fillmore as its presidential candidate in the 1856 election. However, Fillmore was not anti-Catholic or nativist; his campaign concentrated almost entirely on national unity. Historian Tyler Anbinder says, "The American party had dropped nativism from its agenda." Fillmore won 22% of the national popular vote.[125]
In the Orange Riots in New York City in 1871 and 1872, Irish Catholics violently attacked Irish Protestants, who carried orange banners.[126]
Anti-Catholicism among American Jews further intensified in the 1850s during the international controversy over the Edgardo Mortara case, when a baptized Jewish boy in the Papal States was removed from his family and refused to return to them.[127]
After 1875 many states passed constitutional provisions, called "Blaine Amendments", forbidding tax money be used to fund parochial schools.[128][129] In 2002, the United States Supreme Court partially vitiated these amendments, when they ruled that vouchers were constitutional if tax dollars followed a child to a school even if the school were religious.[130]
A favorite rhetorical device in the 1870s was using the code words for Catholicism: “superstition, ambition and ignorance”.[131] President Ulysses Grant in a major speech to veterans in October 1875 warned that America again faced an enemy: religious schools. Grant saw another civil war in the "near future": it would not be between North and South, but will be between "patriotism and intelligence on the one side and superstition, ambition and ignorance on the other."[132] According to historian Charles W. Calhoun, "at various points in his life, Grant had bristled privately at what he considered religious communicants' thralldom to a domineering clergy, but he did not specifically mention Catholicism in his speech. Still, Catholic journals decried the president's seeming exploitation of religious bigotry."[133] In his December 1875 Annual Message to Congress, Grant urged taxation on "vast amounts of untaxed church property" which Professor John McGreevey says was "a transparently anti-Catholic measure since only the Catholic Church owned vast amounts of property – in schools, orphanages, and charitable institutions". Grant told Congress such legislation would protect American citizens from tyranny "whether directed by the demagogue or by priestcraft."[134]
20th and 21st centuries
Anti-Catholicism played a major role in the defeat of Al Smith, the Democratic nominee for president in 1928. Smith did very well in Catholic precincts, but he did poorly in the South, as well as among the Lutherans of the North. His candidacy was also hampered by his close ties to the notorious Tammany Hall political machine in New York City and his strong opposition to prohibition. His cause was uphill in any case, because he faced a popular Republican leadership in a year of peace and unprecedented prosperity.[135]
The passage of the 18th Amendment in 1919, a culmination of a half-century of anti-liquor agitation, also fueled anti-Catholic sentiment. Prohibition enjoyed strong support among dry pietistic Protestants, and equally strong opposition by wet Catholics, Episcopalians, and German Lutherans. The drys focused their distrust on the Catholics who showed little popular support for the enforcement of prohibition laws, and when the Great Depression began in 1929, there was increasing sentiment that the government needed the tax revenue which the repeal of Prohibition would bring.[136]
Over 10 million Protestant soldiers who served in World War II came into close contact with Catholic soldiers; they got along well and, after the war, they played a central role in spreading a greater level of ethnic and religious tolerance for Catholics among other white Americans.[137] Although anti-Catholic sentiment declined in the U.S. in the 1960s, particularly after John F. Kennedy became the first Catholic U.S. president,[138] traces of it persist in both the media and popular culture.[139] In March, 2000, the Catholic League criticized Slate Magazine and journalist Jack Shafer for a piece the League described as taking "delight in justifying anti-Catholicism."[140][141] Attacks on persons and property have also continued to occur. For instance, in 2018, an Indiana priest was assaulted by a man who said "This is for all the little kids,"[142] in an apparent reference to clerical sex abuse, the most prevalent form of modern-day anti-Catholic sentiment. The summer of 2020 saw a wave of anti-Catholic acts which ranged from the vandalization of churches[143][144][145] and cathedrals;[146][147] to the destruction and often the decapitation of statues, particularly statues of St Junipero Serra,[148][149][150] Mary,[151][152] and Jesus;[153][154] Illinois,[155] and Florida.[156] Many of these acts are tied to other political movements, most notably Black Lives Matter and other protests such as those which have occurred in the aftermath of the murder of George Floyd. The QAnon movement and other far right groups have also espoused anti-Catholic sentiment. One popular conspiracy is that the Three stars on the dc flag stand for London the Vatican and Washington.[157] Another far right conspiracy claims the pope was arrested for sexual abuse.[158]
En países principalmente católicos
Anti-clericalism is a historical movement that opposes religious (generally Catholic) institutional power and influence in all aspects of public and political life, and the involvement of religion in the everyday life of the citizen. It suggests a more active and partisan role than mere laïcité. The goal of anticlericalism is sometimes to reduce religion to a purely private belief-system with no public profile or influence. However, many times it has included outright suppression of all aspects of faith.
Anticlericalism has at times been violent, leading to murders and the desecration, destruction and seizure of Church property. Anticlericalism in one form or another has existed throughout most of Christian history, and it is considered to be one of the major popular forces underlying the 16th century reformation. Some of the philosophers of the Enlightenment, including Voltaire, continually attacked the Catholic Church, both its leadership and its priests, claiming that many of its clergy were morally corrupt. These assaults in part led to the suppression of the Jesuits, and played a major part in the wholesale attacks on the very existence of the Church during the French Revolution in the Reign of Terror and the program of dechristianization. Similar attacks on the Church occurred in Mexico and Portugal since their 1910 revolutions and in Spain during the twentieth century.
Argentina
In 1954, Argentina saw extensive destruction of churches, denunciations of clergy and confiscation of Catholic schools as Juan Perón attempted to extend state control over national institutions such as the Catholic Church in Argentina.[159]
Austria
Holy Roman Empire
Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II (emperor 1765–1790) opposed what he called "contemplative" religious institutions — reclusive Catholic institutions that he perceived as doing nothing positive for the community.[160] Although Joseph II was himself a Catholic, he also believed in firm state control of ecclesiastical matters outside of the strictly religious sphere and decreed that Austrian bishops could not communicate directly with the Roman Curia.[161] His policies are included in what is called Josephinism, that promoted the subjection of the Catholic Church in the Habsburg lands to service for the state.[162]
Austro-Hungary
Georg Ritter von Schönerer (17 July 1842 – 14 August 1921) was an Austrian landowner and politician of Austro-Hungary. He was a major opponent of political Catholicism and the founder of the movement Away from Rome!, aimed the conversion of all the Catholic German-speaking population of Austria to Lutheranism, or, in some cases, to the Old Catholic Churches.[163][164]
Brazil
Brazil has the largest number of Catholics in the world,[165] and as a result, it has not experienced any large anti-Catholic movements.
During the Nineteenth Century, the Religious Question was the name given to the crisis when Freemasons in the Brazilian government imprisoned two Catholic bishops for enforcing the Church's prohibition against Freemasonry.
Even during times in which the Church was experiencing intense conservatism, such as the era of the Brazilian military dictatorship, anti-Catholicism was not advocated by the left-wing movements (instead, Liberation theology gained force). However, with the growing number of Protestants (especially Neo-Pentecostals) in the country, anti-Catholicism has gained strength. A pivotal moment during the rise of anti-Catholicism was the kicking of the saint episode in 1995. However, owing to the protests of the Catholic majority, the perpetrator was transferred to South Africa for the duration of the controversy.
During the COVID-19 pandemic in Brazil, Drug dealers took advantage of the pandemic to unite five slums in Rio de Janeiro imposing evangelical Protestantism on the area and attacking Catholics (and also members of Umbanda).[166][167]
Colombia
Anti-Catholic and anti-clerical sentiments, some of which were spurred by an anti-clerical conspiracy theory which was circulating in Colombia during the mid-twentieth century, led to the persecution and killing of Catholics, most specifically, the persecution and killing of members of the Catholic clergy, during the events which are known as La Violencia.[168]
Cuba
Cuba, under the rule of the atheist Fidel Castro, succeeded in reducing the ability of the Catholic Church to work by deporting one archbishop and 150 Spanish priests, by discriminating against Catholics in public life and education and refusing to accept them as members of the Communist Party.[169] The subsequent flight of 300,000 Cubans from the island also helped to diminish the Church there.[169]
France
During the French Revolution (1789–95) clergy and religious were persecuted and Church property was destroyed and confiscated by the new government as part of a process of Dechristianization, the aim of which was the destruction of Catholic practices and the destruction of the very faith itself, culminating with the imposition of the atheistic Cult of Reason followed by the imposition of the deistic Cult of the Supreme Being.[170] The persecution led Catholics who lived in the west of France to wage a counterrevolution, the War in the Vendée, and when the state was victorious, it killed tens of thousands of Catholics. A few historians have called it genocide.[171] However, most historians believe it was a brutal crackdown against political enemies rather than genocide.[172] The French invasions of Italy (1796–99) included an assault on Rome and the exile of Pope Pius VI in 1798.
Relations improved in 1802 when Napoleon came to terms with the Pope in the Concordat of 1801.[173] It allowed the Church to operate but did not give back the lands; it proved satisfactory for a century. By 1815 the Papacy supported the growing alliance against Napoleon, and was re-instated as the State Church during the conservative Bourbon Restoration of 1815–30. The brief French Revolution of 1848 again opposed the Church, but the Second French Empire (1851–71) gave it full support. The history of 1789–1871 had established two camps—the left against the Church and the right supporting it—that largely continued until the Vatican II process in 1962–65.[174]
France's Third Republic (1871–1940) was cemented by anti-clericalism, the desire to secularise the State and social life, faithful to the French Revolution.[175] This was the position of the radicals and socialists.[176] in 1902 Émile Combes became Minister of the Interior, and the main energy of the government was devoted to an anti-clerical agenda.[177] The parties of the Left, Socialists and Radicals, united upon this question in the Bloc republicain, supported Combes in his application of the law of 1901 on the religious associations, and voted the new bill on the congregations (1904). By 1904, through his efforts, nearly 10,000 religious schools had been closed and thousands of priests and nuns left France rather than be persecuted.[178] Under his guidance parliament moved toward the 1905 French law on the separation of Church and State, which ended the Napoleonic arrangement of 1801.[179]
In the Affaire Des Fiches, in France in 1904–1905, it was discovered that the militantly anticlerical War Minister under Combes, General Louis André, was determining promotions based on the French Masonic Grand Orient's huge card index on public officials, detailing which were Catholic and who attended Mass, with the goal of preventing their promotions. Exposure almost caused the government to fall; instead Combes retired.[180]
Italy
In the Napoleonic era, anti-clericalism was a powerful political force.[181] From 1860 through 1870, the new Italian government, under the House of Savoy, outlawed all religious orders, both male and female, including the Franciscans, the Dominicans and the Jesuits, closed down their monasteries and confiscated their property, and imprisoned or banished bishops who opposed this (see Kulturkampf).[182][183] Italy took over Rome in 1870 when it lost its French protection; the Pope declared himself a prisoner in the Vatican. Relations were finally normalized in 1929 with the Lateran Treaty.[184]
Mexico
Following the Mexican Revolution of 1860, President Benito Juárez issued a decree nationalizing Church property, separating Church and State, and suppressing religious orders.
In the wake of the revolution of 1910, the new Mexican Constitution of 1917 contained further anti-clerical provisions. Article 3 called for secular education in the schools and prohibited the Church from engaging in primary education; Article 5 outlawed monastic orders; Article 24 forbade public worship outside the confines of churches; and Article 27 placed restrictions on the right of religious organizations to hold property. Article 130 deprived clergy members of basic political rights.
Mexican President Plutarco Elías Calles's enforcement of previous anti-Catholic legislation denying priests' rights, enacted as the Calles Law, prompted the Mexican Episcopate to suspend all Catholic worship in Mexico from August 1, 1926, and sparked the bloody Cristero War of 1926–1929 in which some 50,000 peasants took up arms against the government. Their slogan was "¡Viva Cristo Rey!" (Long live Christ the King!).
The effects of the war on the Church were profound. Between 1926 and 1934 at least 40 priests were killed.[185] Where there were 4,500 priests serving the people before the rebellion, in 1934 there were only 334 priests licensed by the government to serve fifteen million people, the rest having been eliminated by emigration, expulsion and assassination.[185][186] It appears that ten states were left without any priests.[186] Other sources indicate that the persecution was such that, by 1935, 17 states were left with no priests at all.[187]
Some of the Catholic casualties of this struggle are known as the Saints of the Cristero War.[185][188] Events relating to this were famously portrayed in the novel The Power and the Glory by Graham Greene.[189][190]
Poland
For the situation in Russian Poland, see Anticatholicism in Russian Empire
Catholicism in Poland, the religion of the vast majority of the population, was severely persecuted during World War II, following the Nazi invasion of the country and its subsequent annexation into Germany. Over 3 million Catholics of Polish descent were murdered during the Invasion of Poland, including 3 bishops, 52 priests, 26 monks, 3 seminarians, 8 nuns and 9 lay people, later beatified in 1999 by Pope John Paul II as the 108 Martyrs of World War II.[191]
The Roman Catholic Church was even more violently suppressed in Reichsgau Wartheland and the General Government.[192] Churches were closed, and clergy were deported, imprisoned, or killed,[192] among them was Maximilian Kolbe, a Pole of German descent. Between 1939 and 1945, 2,935 members[193] of the Polish clergy (18%[194]) were killed in concentration camps. In the city of Chełmno, for example, 48% of the Catholic clergy were killed.
Catholicism continued to be persecuted under the Communist regime from the 1950s. Contemporary Stalinist ideology claimed that the Church and religion in general were about to disintegrate. Initially, Archbishop Wyszyński entered into an agreement with the Communist authorities, which was signed on 14 February 1950 by the Polish episcopate and the government. The Agreement regulated the matters of the Church in Poland. However, in May of that year, the Sejm breached the Agreement by passing a law for the confiscation of Church property.
On 12 January 1953, Wyszyński was elevated to the rank of cardinal by Pius XII as another wave of persecution began in Poland. When the bishops voiced their opposition to state interference in ecclesiastical appointments, mass trials and the internment of priests began—the cardinal being one of its victims. On 25 September 1953 he was imprisoned at Grudziądz, and later placed under house arrest in monasteries in Prudnik near Opole and in Komańcza Monastery in the Bieszczady Mountains. He was released on 26 October 1956.
Pope John Paul II, who was born in Poland as Karol Wojtyla, often cited the persecution of Polish Catholics in his stance against Communism.
Spain
Anti-clericalism in Spain at the start of the Spanish Civil War resulted in the killing of almost 7,000 clergy, the destruction of hundreds of churches and the persecution of lay people in Spain's Red Terror.[195] Hundreds of Martyrs of the Spanish Civil War have been beatified and hundreds more in October 2007.[196][197]
En países mixtos católico-protestantes
Switzerland
The Jesuits (Societas Jesu) were banned from all activities in either clerical or pedagogical functions by Article 51 of the Swiss constitution in 1848. The reason for the ban was the perceived threat to the stability of the state resulting from Jesuit advocacy of traditional Catholicism; it followed the Roman Catholic cantons forming an unconstitutional separate alliance leading to civil war. In June 1973, 54.9% of Swiss voters approved removing the ban on the Jesuits (as well as Article 52 which banned monasteries and convents from Switzerland) (See Kulturkampf and Religion in Switzerland)
En países principalmente ortodoxos
Byzantine Empire
In the East–West Schism of 1054 the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Catholic Church broke their full communion with each other because of Ecclesiastical differences, Theological, and Liturgical disputes.[198]
In April 1182, the Eastern Orthodox population of the Byzantine Empire committed a large-scale massacre against the Catholic population of Constantinople,[199][200] this massacre is known as the Massacre of the Latins and it further worsened relations and increased enmity between Eastern Orthodoxy and Catholicism.[201]
Russian Empire
During Russian rule, Catholics, primarily Poles and Lithuanians, suffered great persecution not only because of their ethnic-national background, but also for religious reasons. Especially after the uprisings of 1831 and 1863, and within the process of Russification (understanding that there is a strong link between religion and nationality), the tsarist authorities were anxious to promote the conversion of these peoples to the official faith, intervening in public education in those regions (an Orthodox religious education was compulsory) and censoring the actions of the Catholic Church.[202] In particular, attention was focused on the public actions of the Church, such as masses or funerals, because they could serve as the focus of protests against the occupation. Many priests were imprisoned or deported because of their activities in defense of their religion and ethnicity. In the late nineteenth century, however, there was a progressive relaxation of the control of Catholic institutions by the Russian authorities.[203]
Former Yugoslavia
During World War II in Yugoslavia, the Chetniks killed an estimated 18,000-32,000 Croats.[204] About 300 villages and small towns were destroyed, along with a large number of mosques and Catholic churches.[205]
During the Yugoslav Wars in Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina, the ICTY determined that ethnic Croats were being persecuted on political, racial and religious grounds, as part of a general campaign of killings and forced-removals of Croat civilians. The religious element of the Serbian persecution of Catholic Croats was the deliberate destruction of religious buildings and monuments, including churches, chapels and even cemeteries.[206] It is estimated that some 200 Catholic churches were destroyed or severely damaged by Serb forces during the Croatian War of Independence,[207] while another 269 religious buildings were destroyed during the Bosnian War.[208]
Ukraine
In the separatist region known as the Donetsk People's Republic, the government has declared that the Russian Orthodox Church of the Moscow Patriarchate is the state religion, and Protestant churches have been occupied by paramilitaries.[209] Jehovah's Witnesses have lost their property, and their Kingdom Halls have been occupied by rebels in the Donetsk and Luhansk regions.[210] Roman Catholic, Greek Catholic, Ukrainian Orthodox, and Protestant clergy have been kidnapped by groups such as the Russian Orthodox Army, and they have also been accused of opposing Russian Orthodox values.[211] Human Rights Watch says that the bodies of several members of the Church of the Transfiguration were found in a mass grave in 2014.[212]
Naciones no cristianas
Bangladesh
On 3 June 2001 nine people were killed by a bomb explosion at a Roman Catholic church in the Gopalganj District.[213]
Burkina Faso
On May 12, 2019, six Catholics including a priest were killed by gunmen who rode on motorcycles and stormed a church in Dablo during a Sunday morning mass.[214] A day later, on May 13, 2019, four people were killed and a statue of the Virgin Mary was destroyed by armed men in an attack on Catholic parishioners during a religious procession in the remote village of Zimtenga.[215]
China
The Daoguang Emperor modified existing law, making spreading Catholicism punishable by death.[216] During the Boxer Rebellion, Catholic missionaries and their families were murdered by Boxer rebels.[217] During the 1905 Tibetan Rebellion, Tibetan rebels murdered Catholics and Tibetan converts.[218]
Since the founding of the People's Republic of China, all religions including Catholicism only operate under state control.[219] However, there are Catholics who do not accept State rule over the Church and worship clandestinely.[220] There has been some rapprochement between the Chinese government and the Vatican.[221]
Claims of persecution of Chinese Christians occurred in both official and unsanctioned churches.[222] The Associated Press reported in 2018 that Chinese paramount leader Xi Jinping "is waging the most severe systematic suppression of Christianity in the country since religious freedom was written into the Chinese constitution in 1982.",[223] which has involved "destroying crosses, burning bibles, shutting churches and ordering followers to sign papers renouncing their faith".[224]
Japan
On February 5, 1597 a group of twenty-six Catholics were killed on the orders of Toyotomi Hideyoshi.[225] During the Tokugawa Shogunate, Japanese Catholics were suppressed, leading to an armed rebellion during the 1630s. After the rebellion was defeated, Catholicism was further suppressed and many Japanese Catholics went underground.[226][227] Catholicism was not openly restored to Japan until the 1850s.
North Korea
Sri Lanka
Government actions
In Sri Lanka, A Buddhist-influenced government took over 600 parish schools in 1960 without compensation and secularized them.[228] Attempts were made by future governments to restore some autonomy.
Anti-Catholic violence
Since 2000, in a context of rising violence against religious minorities, i.e. Christians, Muslims and Hindus, multiple attacks on Catholic churches occurred. For instance, in 2009, a mob of 1,000 smashed the interior of a church in the town of Crooswatta, assaulting parishioners with clubs, swords and stones, forcing several of them to be treated in hospitals. In 2013, vandals smashed a statue of the Virgin Mary as well as a tabernacle, and they also tried to burn the Eucharist at a church in Angulana, near Colombo.[229]
The term "anti-Catholic Catholic" has come to be applied to Catholics who are perceived to view the Catholic Church with animosity. Traditionalist or conservative Catholics frequently use it as a descriptive term for modernist or liberal Catholics, especially those modernist or liberal Catholics who seek to reform Church doctrine, make secularist critiques of the Catholic Church, or place secular principles above Church teachings.[230][231] Those who take issue with the Catholic theology of sexuality are especially prone to be given this label.[232]
Suppression of the Jesuits
Prime Minister Pombal of Portugal was aggressively hostile to the Jesuit order because it reported to an Italian power—the Pope—and tried to operate independently of the government. He organized a full-scale war on the Jesuits both in Portugal and in much of Catholic Europe as well. The Jesuit order was suppressed in the Portuguese Empire (1759), France (1764), the Two Sicilies, Malta, Parma, the Spanish Empire (1767), and Austria and Hungary (1782). The Pope himself suppressed the order everywhere in 1773, but it survived in Russia and Prussia. The suppression was a major blow to Catholic education across Europe, with nearly 1000 secondary schools and seminaries shut down. Their lands, buildings, and endowments were confiscated; their teachers scattered. Although Jesuit education had become old fashioned in Poland and other areas, it was the main educational support network for Catholic intellectuals, senior clergy, and prominent families. Governments tried in vain to replace all those schools, but there were far too few non-clerical teachers who were suitable.[233]
The Jesuit order was restored by the pope in 1814 and flourished in terms of rebuilding schools and educational institutions but never regained its enormous power in the political realm.[234] The suppression of the Jesuits "was an unmitigated disaster for Catholicism." The political weakness of the once-powerful institution was on public display for ridicule and more bullying. The Church lost its best educational system, its best missionary system, and its most innovative thinkers. Intellectually, it would take two centuries for the Church to fully recover.[235]
En la cultura popular
Anti-Catholic stereotypes are a long-standing feature of English literature, popular fiction, and even pornography. Gothic fiction is particularly rich in this regard. Lustful priests, cruel abbesses, immured nuns, and sadistic inquisitors appear in such works as The Italian by Ann Radcliffe, The Monk by Matthew Lewis, Melmoth the Wanderer by Charles Maturin and "The Pit and the Pendulum" by Edgar Allan Poe.[236]
Referencias
Notes
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- ^ John Wolffe, "A Comparative Historical Categorisation of Anti‐Catholicism." Journal of Religious History 39.2 (2015): 182-202.
- ^ John W. O'Malley SJ, The Jesuits: A History from Ignatius to the Present (2017).
- ^ Oberman, Heiko Augustinus (1 January 1994). The Impact of the Reformation: Essays. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. ISBN 9780802807328 – via Google Books.
- ^ Luther's Last Battles: Politics And Polemics 1531-46 By Mark U. Edwards, Jr. Fortress Press, 2004. ISBN 978-0-8006-3735-4
- ^ HIC OSCULA PEDIBUS PAPAE FIGUNTUR
- ^ "Nicht Bapst: nicht schreck uns mit deim ban, Und sey nicht so zorniger man. Wir thun sonst ein gegen wehre, Und zeigen dirs Bel vedere"
- ^ Mark U. Edwards, Jr., Luther's Last Battles: Politics And Polemics 1531-46 (2004), p. 199
- ^ Joseph A. Burgess; Jeffrey Gros, eds. (1989). Building Unity. New York: Paulist Press. p. 140. ISBN 978-0-8091-3040-5.
- ^ "Smalcald Articles - Book of Concord".
- ^ Treatise on the Power and Primacy of the Pope in the Triglot translation of the Book of Concord
- ^ Archived copy at the Library of Congress (May 8, 2009).
- ^ "UMC.org : the official online ministry of The United Methodist Church".
- ^ Edward Gibbon (1994 edition, edited by David Womersley), The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Penguin Books: Vol. 1, 469.
- ^ Mark A. Noll; Carolyn Nystrom (2008). Is the Reformation Over?: An Evangelical Assessment of Contemporary Roman Catholicism. Baker Academic. pp. 236–37. ISBN 9780801035753.
- ^ Edward Peters (1989). Inquisition. U of California Press. pp. 155–88. ISBN 9780520066304.
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- ^ Colin Haydon, Anti-Catholicism in eighteenth-century England, c. 1714-80: A political and social study (Manchester University Press, 1993)
- ^ Dorothy Marshall, Eighteenth Century England (1974) pp 469-72
- ^ Marjule Anne Drury, "Anti-Catholicism in Germany, Britain, and the United States: A Review and Critique of Recent Scholarship" Church History (2001) 70#1
- ^ E. R. Norman. Anti-Catholicism in Victorian England (1968)
- ^ J.R.H. Moorman (1973) A History of the Church in England. London, A&C Black: 457
- ^ John D. Brewer, and Gareth I. Higgins, Anti-catholicism in Northern Ireland, 1600-1998: the mote and the beam (1998)
- ^ Steven Roud (2006) The English Year. London, Penguin: 455-63
- ^ Clive D. Field, "No Popery’s Ghost." Journal of Religion in Europe 7#2 (2014): 116-149.
- ^ Laws in Ireland for the Suppression of Popery Archived 2008-01-03 at the Wayback Machine at University of Minnesota Law School
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- ^ J.M.C. Careless, Brown of the Globe: Volume One: Voice of Upper Canada 1818-1859 (1959) 1:172-74
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- ^ See Hereward Senior "Orange Order" in Canadian Encyclopedia (2015).
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- ^ Robert Craig Brown, and Ramsay Cook, Canada, 1896-1921: A nation transformed (1974) pp 253-62
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- ^ For the lynch mob, priests are guilty until proven innocent; www.dailytelegraph.com.au; march 16, 2019
- ^ Archbishop Coleridge says ABC not interested in the ‘real story’ of the Catholic Church; http://catholicleader.com.au; July 26, 2017
- ^ (God's Farthest Outpost, A History of Catholics in New Zealand, Viking, 1997, p. 9)
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- ^ The Nazi Master Plan: The Persecution of the Christian Churches Archived 2013-09-26 at the Wayback Machine, Rutgers Journal of Law and Religion, Winter 2001, publishing evidence compiled by the O.S.S. for the Nuremberg war-crimes trials of 1945 and 1946
- ^ Griffin, Roger (2006). "Introduction: Part 1: Defining Fascism: Fascism's relation to religion". In Blamires, Cyprian (ed.). World fascism: a historical encyclopedia, Volume 1. ABC–CLIO. p. 10. ISBN 9781576079409.
There is no doubt that in the long run Nazi leaders such as Hitler and Himmler intended to eradicate Christianity just as ruthlessly as any other rival ideology, even if in the short term they had to be content to make compromises with it.
- ^ Mosse, George Lachmann, Nazi culture: intellectual, cultural and social life in the Third Reich, p. 240, Univ of Wisconsin Press, 2003: "Had the Nazis won the war their ecclesiastical policies would have gone beyond those of the German Christians, to the utter destruction of both the Protestant and the Catholic Church."
- ^ Shirer, William L., Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany, p. 240, Simon and Schuster, 1990: "And even fewer paused to reflect that under the leadership of Rosenberg, Bormann and Himmler, who were backed by Hitler, the Nazi regime would eventually destroy Christianity in Germany, if it could, and replace it with the old paganism of the early tribal Germanic gods and the new paganism of the Nazi extremists."
- ^ Fischel, Jack R., Historical Dictionary of the Holocaust, p. 123, Scarecrow Press, 2010: "The objective was to either destroy Christianity and restore the German gods of antiquity or to turn Jesus into an Aryan."
- ^ Dill, Marshall, Germany: a modern history, p. 365, University of Michigan Press, 1970: "It seems no exaggeration to insist that the greatest challenge the Nazis had to face was their effort to eradicate Christianity in Germany or at least to subjugate it to their general world outlook."
- ^ Wheaton, Eliot Barculo (1968). Prelude to calamity: the Nazi revolution, 1933–35: with a background survey of the Weimar era. Doubleday. pp. 290, 363.
Hitler ... determined 'to eradicate Christianity in Germany root and branch.'
- ^ Bendersky, Joseph W., A concise history of Nazi Germany, p. 147, Rowman & Littlefield, 2007: "Consequently, it was Hitler’s long range goal to eliminate the churches once he had consolidated control over his European empire."
- ^ Richard J. Evans; The Third Reich at War; Penguin Press; New York 2009, p. 547.
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- ^ Peter Hoffmann; The History of the German Resistance 1933-1945; 3rd Edn (First English Edn); McDonald & Jane's; London; 1977; p. 14
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- ^ Theodore S. Hamerow; On the Road to the Wolf's Lair - German Resistance to Hitler; Belknap Press of Harvard University Press; 1997; ISBN 0-674-63680-5; p. 74.
- ^ Alan Bullock. Hitler: A Study in Tyranny; HarperPerennial Edition 1991; p. 218.
- ^ Alan Bullock. Hitler: A Study in Tyranny; HarperPerennial Edition 1991; p. 219.
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica Online: Fascism - Identification with Christianity; 2013. Web. 14 April 2013
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica Online - Martin Bormann; web 25 April 2013
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica Online - Alfred Rosenberg; web 25 April 2013.
- ^ Richard Bonney; Confronting the Nazi War on Christianity: the Kulturkampf Newsletters, 1936-1939; International Academic Publishers; Bern; 2009; ISBN 978-3-03911-904-2; p. 122.
- ^ Theodore S. Hamerow; On the Road to the Wolf's Lair - German Resistance to Hitler; Belknap Press of Harvard University Press; 1997; ISBN 0-674-63680-5; p. 136.
- ^ Ian Kershaw; Hitler a Biography; 2008 Edn; W.W. Norton & Company; London; p. 290.
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- ^ Anton Gill; An Honourable Defeat; A History of the German Resistance to Hitler; Heinemann; London; 1994; p. 57.
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- ^ Ian Kershaw; Hitler a Biography; 2008 Edn; WW Norton & Company; London; p.315
- ^ John S. Conway; The Nazi Persecution of the Churches, 1933-1945; Regent College Publishing; 2001; ISBN 1-57383-080-1 (USA); p. 92.
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- ^ Paul Berben; Dachau: The Official History 1933-1945; Norfolk Press; London; 1975; ISBN 9780852110096; pp. 141–2
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Further reading
- Anbinder, Tyler. Nativism and Slavery: The Northern Know Nothings and the Politics of the 1850s 1992; in U.S.
- Aston, Nigel (2002). Christianity and Revolutionary Europe, 1750-1830. Cambridge UP. ISBN 9780521465922.
- Bennett, David H. The Party of Fear: From Nativist Movements to the New Right in American History University of North Carolina Press, 1988
- Blanshard, Paul. American Freedom and Catholic Power Beacon Press, 1949; famous attack on Catholicism
- Brown, Thomas M. "The Image of the Beast: Anti-Papal Rhetoric in Colonial America", in Richard O. Curry and Thomas M. Brown, eds., Conspiracy: The Fear of Subversion in American History (1972), 1-20.
- Bruce, Steve. No Pope of Rome: Anti-Catholicism in Modern Scotland (Edinburgh, 1985).
- Clifton, Robin (1971). "Popular Fear of Catholics during the English Revolution". Past and Present. 52 (52): 23–55. doi:10.1093/past/52.1.23. JSTOR 650394.
- Cogliano, Francis D. No King, No Popery: Anti-Catholicism in Revolutionary New England Greenwood Press, 1995
- Cruz, Joel Morales. The Mexican Reformation: Catholic Pluralism, Enlightenment Religion, and the Iglesia de Jesus Movement in Benito Juarez's Mexico (1859-72) (Wipf and Stock Publishers, 2011).
- Davis, David Brion (1960). "Some Themes of Counter-subversion: An Analysis of Anti-Masonic, Anti-Catholic and Anti-Mormon Literature". Mississippi Valley Historical Review. 47 (2): 205–224. doi:10.2307/1891707. JSTOR 1891707.
- Drury, Marjule Anne (2001). "Anti-Catholicism in Germany, Britain, and the United States: A review and critique of recent scholarship". Church History. 70 (1): 98–131. doi:10.2307/3654412. JSTOR 3654412.
- Franklin, James (2006), "Freemasonry in Europe", Catholic Values and Australian Realities, Connor Court Publishing Pty Ltd, pp. 7–10, ISBN 9780975801543
- Greeley, Andrew M. An Ugly Little Secret: Anti-Catholicism in North America 1977.
- Henry, David. "Senator John F. Kennedy Encounters the Religious Question: I Am Not the Catholic Candidate for President." in Contemporary American Public Discourse Ed. H. R. Ryan. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, Inc., 1992. 177–193.
- Higham; John. Strangers in the Land: Patterns of American Nativism, 1860–1925 1955
- Hinckley, Ted C. (1962). "American Anti-Catholicism During the Mexican War". Pacific Historical Review. 31 (2): 121–137. doi:10.2307/3636570. JSTOR 3636570. S2CID 161327008.
- Hostetler; Michael J. "Gov. Al Smith Confronts the Catholic Question: The Rhetorical Legacy of the 1928 Campaign," Communication Quarterly (1998) 46#1 pp 12+.
- Jensen, Richard. The Winning of the Midwest: Social and Political Conflict, 1888–1896 (1971)
- Joskowicz, Ari. The Modernity of Others: Jewish Anti-Catholicism in Germany and France (Stanford University Press; 2013) 376 pages; how Jewish intellectuals defined themselves as modern against the anti-modern positions of the Catholic Church
- Latourette, Kenneth Scott. Christianity in a Revolutionary Age (5 vol 1969), covers 1790s to 1960; comprehensive global history
- Keating, Karl. Catholicism and Fundamentalism—The Attack on "Romanism" by "Bible Christians" (Ignatius Press, 1988). ISBN 978-0-89870-177-7
- Lehner, Ulrich and Michael Printy, eds. A Companion to the Catholic Enlightenment in Europe (2010)
- McGreevy, John T (1997). "Thinking on One's Own: Catholicism in the American Intellectual Imagination, 1928–1960". The Journal of American History. 84 (1): 97–131. doi:10.2307/2952736. JSTOR 2952736.
- Moore; Leonard J. Citizen Klansmen: The Ku Klux Klan in Indiana, 1921–1928 University of North Carolina Press, 1991
- Mourret, Fernand. History Of The Catholic Church (8 vol, 1931) comprehensive history to 1878. country by country. online free; by French Catholic priest; see vols. 6-7-8.
- Paz, D. G. (1979). "Popular Anti-Catholicism in England, 1850–1851". Albion. 11 (4): 331–359. doi:10.2307/4048544. JSTOR 4048544.
- Stark, Rodney (2016). Bearing False Witness: Debunking Centuries of Anti-Catholic History. Templeton Press. ISBN 978-1599474991.
- Thiemann, Ronald F. Religion in Public Life Georgetown University Press, 1996.
- Wiener, Carol Z. (1971). "The Beleaguered Isle. A Study of Elizabethan and Early Jacobean Anti-Catholicism". Past and Present. 51: 27–62. doi:10.1093/past/51.1.27.
- Wolffe, John (2013). "North Atlantic Anti-Catholicism in the Nineteenth Century: A Comparative Overview". European Studies: A Journal of European Culture, History and Politics. 31 (1): 25–41.
- Wolffe, John, ed., Protestant-Catholic Conflict from the Reformation to the Twenty-first Century (Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2013). Table of contents
- Wolffe, John. "A Comparative Historical Categorisation of Anti‐Catholicism." Journal of Religious History 39.2 (2015): 182–202. online free
enlaces externos
- Observatory on Intolerance and Discrimination Against Christians in Europe