Una economía de mercado es un sistema económico en el que las decisiones sobre inversión , producción y distribución están guiadas por las señales de precios creadas por las fuerzas de la oferta y la demanda . La principal característica de una economía de mercado es la existencia de mercados de factores que desempeñan un papel dominante en la asignación de capital y los factores de producción . [1] [2]
Las economías de mercado van desde sistemas de libre mercado y laissez-faire mínimamente regulados donde la actividad estatal se restringe a proporcionar bienes y servicios públicos y salvaguardar la propiedad privada, [3] hasta formas intervencionistas donde el gobierno juega un papel activo en la corrección de fallas del mercado y la promoción social. bienestar . Dirigidas por el Estado o dirigistas economías son aquellos en los que el Estado juega un papel directivo en la orientación del desarrollo general del mercado a través de políticas industriales o planificación indicativa—Que guía todavía no sustituye al mercado por la planificación económica —una forma a la que a veces se hace referencia como economía mixta . [4] [5]
Las economías de mercado se contrastan con las economías planificadas, en las que las decisiones de inversión y producción se plasman en un plan económico integrado de toda la economía. En una economía de planificación centralizada , la planificación económica es el principal mecanismo de asignación entre empresas y no entre los mercados, y los medios de producción de la economía son propiedad de un único organismo organizativo y los gestiona. [6] [se necesita una mejor fuente ]
Caracteristicas
Derechos de propiedad
Para que las economías de mercado funcionen de manera eficiente, los gobiernos deben establecer derechos de propiedad claramente definidos y exigibles para los activos y bienes de capital. Sin embargo, los derechos de propiedad no significan específicamente derechos de propiedad privada y las economías de mercado no presuponen lógicamente la existencia de la propiedad privada de los medios de producción . Las economías de mercado pueden incluir, y a menudo lo hacen, varios tipos de cooperativas o empresas estatales autónomas que adquieren bienes de capital y materias primas en los mercados de capital . Estas empresas utilizan un sistema de precios libres determinado por el mercado para asignar bienes de capital y mano de obra. [7] Además, hay muchas variaciones del socialismo de mercado en las que la mayoría de los activos de capital son de propiedad social y los mercados asignan recursos entre empresas de propiedad social. Estos modelos van desde sistemas basados en empresas propiedad de los trabajadores basados en la autogestión hasta una combinación de propiedad pública de los medios de producción con mercados de factores . [8]
Oferta y demanda
Las economías de mercado se basan en un sistema de precios para indicar a los actores del mercado que ajusten la producción y la inversión. La formación de precios se basa en la interacción de la oferta y la demanda para alcanzar o aproximarse a un equilibrio en el que el precio unitario de un bien o servicio en particular se encuentra en un punto en el que la cantidad demandada es igual a la cantidad ofrecida.
Los gobiernos pueden intervenir estableciendo precios máximos o precios mínimos en mercados específicos (como las leyes de salario mínimo en el mercado laboral), o utilizar la política fiscal para desalentar determinados comportamientos del consumidor o abordar las externalidades del mercado generadas por determinadas transacciones ( impuestos pigouvianos ). Existen diferentes perspectivas sobre el papel del gobierno tanto en la regulación como en la orientación de las economías de mercado y en el tratamiento de las desigualdades sociales producidas por los mercados. Fundamentalmente, una economía de mercado requiere que exista un sistema de precios afectado por la oferta y la demanda como mecanismo principal para asignar recursos independientemente del nivel de regulación.
Capitalismo
El capitalismo es un sistema económico en el que los medios de producción son en gran parte o en su totalidad de propiedad privada y se operan con fines de lucro , estructurados en el proceso de acumulación de capital . En general, en los sistemas capitalistas, la inversión, la distribución, la renta y los precios están determinados por los mercados, ya sean regulados o no regulados.
Existen diferentes variaciones del capitalismo con diferentes relaciones con los mercados. En las variaciones del capitalismo del laissez-faire y del libre mercado , los mercados se utilizan más ampliamente con una intervención estatal mínima o nula y una regulación mínima o nula sobre los precios y la oferta de bienes y servicios. En el capitalismo intervencionista , del bienestar y las economías mixtas , los mercados continúan desempeñando un papel dominante, pero están regulados hasta cierto punto por el gobierno para corregir las fallas del mercado o promover el bienestar social. En los sistemas capitalistas de estado , los mercados son los que menos dependen, y el estado depende en gran medida de la planificación indicativa y / o de las empresas estatales para acumular capital.
El capitalismo ha sido dominante en el mundo occidental desde el fin del feudalismo . Sin embargo, se argumenta que el término economías mixtas describe con mayor precisión la mayoría de las economías contemporáneas debido a que contienen tanto empresas de propiedad privada como estatales. En el capitalismo, los precios determinan la escala de oferta y demanda. Una mayor demanda de ciertos bienes y servicios conduce a precios más altos y una menor demanda de ciertos bienes conduce a precios más bajos.
Capitalismo de libre mercado
Una economía capitalista de libre mercado es un sistema económico en el que los precios de los bienes y servicios son fijados libremente por las fuerzas de la oferta y la demanda y se les permite alcanzar su punto de equilibrio sin la intervención de la política gubernamental. Por lo general, implica el apoyo a mercados altamente competitivos, propiedad privada de empresas productivas. El laissez-faire es una forma más amplia de economía de libre mercado en la que el papel del estado se limita a proteger los derechos de propiedad .
Capitalismo de laissez-faire
Laissez-faire es sinónimo de lo que se denominó economía de libre mercado capitalista estricta a principios y mediados del siglo XIX [ cita requerida ] como un ideal liberal clásico a alcanzar. En general, se entiende que los componentes necesarios para el funcionamiento de un mercado libre idealizado incluyen la ausencia total de regulación gubernamental, subsidios, presiones de precios artificiales y monopolios otorgados por el gobierno (generalmente clasificados como monopolio coercitivo por los defensores del libre mercado) y sin impuestos ni aranceles. además de lo necesario para que el gobierno brinde protección contra la coerción y el robo, manteniendo la paz y los derechos de propiedad y proporcionando bienes públicos básicos. Los defensores de la derecha libertaria del anarcocapitalismo ven al estado como moralmente ilegítimo y económicamente innecesario y destructivo. A pesar de dejar hacer ha sido comúnmente asociado con el capitalismo, hay un parecido de izquierda laissez-faire sistema llamado anarquismo de libre mercado , también conocido como de libre mercado anticapitalismo y el socialismo de libre mercado para distinguirlo de dejar hacer el capitalismo . [9] [10] [11] Por lo tanto, los críticos del laissez-faire como se entiende comúnmente argumentan que un verdadero sistema de laissez-faire sería anticapitalista y socialista . [12] [13]
Welfare capitalism
Welfare capitalism is a capitalist economy that includes public policies favoring extensive provisions for social welfare services. The economic mechanism involves a free market and the predominance of privately owned enterprises in the economy, but public provision of universal welfare services aimed at enhancing individual autonomy and maximizing equality. Examples of contemporary welfare capitalism include the Nordic model of capitalism predominant in Northern Europe.[14]
Regional models
Anglo-Saxon model
Anglo-Saxon capitalism is the form of capitalism predominant in Anglophone countries and typified by the economy of the United States. It is contrasted with European models of capitalism such as the continental social market model and the Nordic model. Anglo-Saxon capitalism refers to a macroeconomic policy regime and capital market structure common to the Anglophone economies. Among these characteristics are low rates of taxation, more open financial markets, lower labor market protections and a less generous welfare state eschewing collective bargaining schemes found in the continental and northern European models of capitalism.[15]
East Asian model
The East Asian model of capitalism involves a strong role for state investment and in some instances involves state-owned enterprises. The state takes an active role in promoting economic development through subsidies, the facilitation of "national champions" and an export-based model of growth. The actual practice of this model varies by country. This designation has been applied to the economies of China, Japan, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan and Vietnam.
A related concept in political science is the developmental state.
Social market economy
The social market economy was implemented by Alfred Müller-Armack and Ludwig Erhard after World War II in West Germany. The social market economic model, sometimes called Rhine capitalism, is based upon the idea of realizing the benefits of a free-market economy, especially economic performance and high supply of goods while avoiding disadvantages such as market failure, destructive competition, concentration of economic power and the socially harmful effects of market processes. The aim of the social market economy is to realize greatest prosperity combined with best possible social security. One difference from the free market economy is that the state is not passive, but instead takes active regulatory measures.[16] The social policy objectives include employment, housing and education policies, as well as a socio-politically motivated balancing of the distribution of income growth. Characteristics of social market economies are a strong competition policy and a contractionary monetary policy. The philosophical background is neoliberalism or ordoliberalism.[17]
Socialismo
Market socialism is a form of market economy where the means of production are socially owned. In a market socialist economy, firms operate according to the rules of supply and demand and operate to maximize profit; the principal difference between market socialism and capitalism being that the profits accrue to society as a whole as opposed to private owners.[18]
The distinguishing feature between non-market socialism and market socialism is the existence of a market for factors of production and the criteria of profitability for enterprises. Profits derived from publicly owned enterprises can variously be used to reinvest in further production, to directly finance government and social services, or be distributed to the public at large through a social dividend or basic income system.[19]
Advocates of market socialism such as Jaroslav Vaněk argue that genuinely free markets are not possible under conditions of private ownership of productive property. Instead, he contends that the class differences and inequalities in income and power that result from private ownership enable the interests of the dominant class to skew the market to their favor, either in the form of monopoly and market power, or by utilizing their wealth and resources to legislate government policies that benefit their specific business interests. Additionally, Vaněk states that workers in a socialist economy based on cooperative and self-managed enterprises have stronger incentives to maximize productivity because they would receive a share of the profits (based on the overall performance of their enterprise) in addition to receiving their fixed wage or salary. The stronger incentives to maximize productivity that he conceives as possible in a socialist economy based on cooperative and self-managed enterprises might be accomplished in a free-market economy if employee-owned companies were the norm as envisioned by various thinkers including Louis O. Kelso and James S. Albus.[20]
Models of market socialism
Market socialism traces its roots to classical economics and the works of Adam Smith, the Ricardian socialists and mutualist philosophers.[21]
In the 1930s, the economists Oskar Lange and Abba Lerner developed a model of socialism that posited that a public body (dubbed the Central Planning Board) could set prices through a trial-and-error approach until they equaled the marginal cost of production in order to achieve perfect competition and pareto optimality. In this model of socialism, firms would be state-owned and managed by their employees and the profits would be disbursed among the population in a social dividend. This model came to be referred to as market socialism because it involved the use of money, a price system and simulated capital markets, all of which were absent from traditional non-market socialism.
A more contemporary model of market socialism is that put forth by the American economist John Roemer, referred to as economic democracy. In this model, social ownership is achieved through public ownership of equity in a market economy. A Bureau of Public Ownership would own controlling shares in publicly listed firms, so that the profits generated would be used for public finance and the provision of a basic income.
Some anarchists and libertarian socialists promote a form of market socialism in which enterprises are owned and managed cooperatively by their workforce so that the profits directly remunerate the employee-owners. These cooperative enterprises would compete with each other in the same way private companies compete with each other in a capitalist market. The first major elaboration of this type of market socialism was made by Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and was called mutualism.
Self-managed market socialism was promoted in Yugoslavia by economists Branko Horvat and Jaroslav Vaněk. In the self-managed model of socialism, firms would be directly owned by their employees and the management board would be elected by employees. These cooperative firms would compete with each other in a market for both capital goods and for selling consumer goods.
Socialist market economy
Following the 1978 reforms, China developed what it calls a socialist market economy in which most of the economy is under state ownership, with the state enterprises organized as joint-stock companies with various government agencies owning controlling shares through a shareholder system. Prices are set by a largely free-price system and the state-owned enterprises are not subjected to micromanagement by a government planning agency. A similar system called socialist-oriented market economy has emerged in Vietnam following the Đổi Mới reforms in 1986. This system is frequently characterized as state capitalism instead of market socialism because there is no meaningful degree of employee self-management in firms, because the state enterprises retain their profits instead of distributing them to the workforce or government and because many function as de facto private enterprises. The profits neither finance a social dividend to benefit the population at large, nor do they accrue to their employees. In China, this economic model is presented as a preliminary stage of socialism to explain the dominance of capitalistic management practices and forms of enterprise organization in both the state and non-state sectors.
En religión
A wide range of philosophers and theologians have linked market economies to monotheistic values. Michael Novak described capitalism as being closely related to Catholicism, but Max Weber drew a connection between capitalism and Protestantism. The economist Jeffrey Sachs has stated that his work was inspired by the healing characteristics of Judaism. Chief Rabbi Lord Sacks of the United Synagogue draws a correlation between modern capitalism and the Jewish image of the Golden Calf.[22]
Christianity
In the Christian faith, the liberation theology movement advocated involving the church in labor market capitalism. Many priests and nuns integrated themselves into labor organizations while others moved into the slums to live among the poor. The Holy Trinity was interpreted as a call for social equality and the elimination of poverty. However, the Pope was highly active in his criticism of liberation theology. He was particularly concerned about the increased fusion between Christianity and Marxism. He closed Catholic institutions that taught liberation theology and dismissed some of its activists from the church.[23]
Buddhism
The Buddhist approach to the market economy was dealt with in E. F. Schumacher’s 1966 essay "Buddhist Economics". Schumacher asserted that a market economy guided by Buddhist principles would more successfully meet the needs of its people. He emphasized the importance or pursuing occupations that adhered to Buddhist teachings. The essay would later become required reading for a course that Clair Brown offered at University of California, Berkeley.[24]
Crítica
The economist Joseph Stiglitz argues that markets suffer from informational inefficiency and the presumed efficiency of markets stems from the faulty assumptions of neoclassical welfare economics, particularly the assumption of perfect and costless information and related incentive problems. Neoclassical economics assumes static equilibrium and efficient markets require that there be no non-convexities, even though nonconvexities are pervasive in modern economies. Stiglitz's critique applies to both existing models of capitalism and to hypothetical models of market socialism. However, Stiglitz does not advocate replacing markets, but instead states that there is a significant role for government intervention to boost the efficiency of markets and to address the pervasive market failures that exist in contemporary economies.[25] A fair market economy is in fact a martingale or a Brownian motion model and for a participant competitor in such a model there is no more than 50% of success chances at any given moment. Due to the fractal nature of any fair market and being market participants subject to the law of competition which impose reinvesting an increasing part of profits, the mean statistical chance of bankruptcy within the half life of any participant is also 50%[26] and 100% whether an infinite sample of time is considered.
Robin Hahnel and Michael Albert claim that "markets inherently produce class division".[27] Albert states that even if everyone started out with a balanced job complex (doing a mix of roles of varying creativity, responsibility and empowerment) in a market economy, class divisions would arise, arguing:
Without taking the argument that far, it is evident that in a market system with uneven distribution of empowering work, such as Economic Democracy, some workers will be more able than others to capture the benefits of economic gain. For example, if one worker designs cars and another builds them, the designer will use his cognitive skills more frequently than the builder. In the long term, the designer will become more adept at conceptual work than the builder, giving the former greater bargaining power in a firm over the distribution of income. A conceptual worker who is not satisfied with his income can threaten to work for a company that will pay him more. The effect is a class division between conceptual and manual laborers, and ultimately managers and workers, and a de facto labor market for conceptual workers.[27]
David McNally argues in the Marxist tradition that the logic of the market inherently produces inequitable outcomes and leads to unequal exchanges, arguing that Adam Smith's moral intent and moral philosophy espousing equal exchange was undermined by the practice of the free markets he championed. The development of the market economy involved coercion, exploitation and violence that Smith's moral philosophy could not countenance. McNally also criticizes market socialists for believing in the possibility of fair markets based on equal exchanges to be achieved by purging parasitical elements from the market economy such as private ownership of the means of production. McNally argues that market socialism is an oxymoron when socialism is defined as an end to wage-based labor.[28]
Ver también
- Capitalism
- Classical economics
- Co-determination
- Economic freedom
- Economic liberalism
- Free market
- Free-market anarchism
- Gift economy
- Grey market
- Keynesian economics
- Laissez-faire
- Market socialism
- Market structure
- Mixed economy
- Neoclassical economics
- Planned economy
- Price system
- Regulated market
- Social market economy
- Socialist market economy
- Social ownership
Referencias
- ^ Gregory and Stuart, Paul and Robert (2004). Comparing Economic Systems in the Twenty-First Century (7th ed.). George Hoffman. p. 538. ISBN 0-618-26181-8.
Market Economy: Economy in which fundamentals of supply and demand provide signals regarding resource utilization.
- ^ Altvater, E. (1993). The Future of the Market: An Essay on the Regulation of Money and Nature After the Collapse of "Actually Existing Socialism. Verso. p. 57.
- ^ Yu-Shan Wu (1995). Comparative Economic Transformations: Mainland China, Hungary, the Soviet Union, and Taiwan. Stanford University Press. p. 8.
In laissez-faire capitalism, the state restricts itself to providing public goods and services that the economy cannot generate by itself and to safeguarding private ownership and the smooth operation of the self-regulating market.
- ^ Altvater, E. (1993). The Future of the Market: An Essay on the Regulation of Money and Nature After the Collapse of "Actually Existing Socialism. Verso. pp. 237–238.
- ^ Tucker, Irvin B. p 491. Macroeconomics for Today. West Publishing. p. 491
- ^ Chappelow, Jim (29 January 2020). "Centrally Planned Economy". Investopedia. Scott, Gordon, rev. Retrieved 9 April 2020.
- ^ Paul M. Johnson (2005). "A Glossary of Political Economy Terms, Market economy". Auburn University. Archived from the original on 27 December 2012. Retrieved 28 December 2012.
- ^ Bock man, Johanna (2011). Markets in the name of Socialism: The Left-Wing origins of Neoliberalism. Stanford University Press. ISBN 978-0-8047-7566-3.
- ^ Chartier, Gary; Johnson, Charles W. (2011). Markets Not Capitalism: Individualist Anarchism Against Bosses, Inequality, Corporate Power, and Structural Poverty. Brooklyn, NY:Minor Compositions/Autonomedia
- ^ "It introduces an eye-opening approach to radical social thought, rooted equally in libertarian socialism and market anarchism." Chartier, Gary; Johnson, Charles W. (2011). Markets Not Capitalism: Individualist Anarchism Against Bosses, Inequality, Corporate Power, and Structural Poverty. Brooklyn, NY: Minor Compositions/Autonomedia. p. back cover.
- ^ "But there has always been a market-oriented strand of libertarian socialism that emphasizes voluntary cooperation between producers. And markets, properly understood, have always been about cooperation. As a commenter at Reason magazine's Hit&Run blog, remarking on Jesse Walker's link to the Kelly article, put it: "every trade is a cooperative act." In fact, it's a fairly common observation among market anarchists that genuinely free markets have the most legitimate claim to the label "socialism." "Socialism: A Perfectly Good Word Rehabilitated" by Kevin Carson at website of Center for a Stateless Society.
- ^ Nick Manley, "Brief Introduction To Left-Wing Laissez Faire Economic Theory: Part One".
- ^ Nick Manley, "Brief Introduction To Left-Wing Laissez Faire Economic Theory: Part Two".
- ^ "The surprising ingredients of Swedish success - free markets and social cohesion" (PDF). Institute of Economic Affairs. June 25, 2013. Retrieved January 15, 2014.
- ^ Anglo-Saxon capitalism, Business Dictionary on BusinessDictionary.com: http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/Anglo-Saxon-capitalism.html
- ^ keyword "social market economy" = “Soziale Marktwirtschaft” Duden Wirtschaft von A bis Z. Grundlagenwissen für Schule und Studium, Beruf und Alltag. 2. Aufl. Mannheim: Bibliographisches Institut & F.A. Brockhaus 2004. Lizenzausgabe Bonn: Bundeszentrale für politische Bildung 2004.
- ^ Duden Wirtschaft von A bis Z. "Eintrag: keyword "social market economy" = Soziale Marktwirtschaft".
- ^ Comparing Economic Systems in the Twenty-First Century, 2003, by Gregory and Stuart. ISBN 0-618-26181-8. (p. 142): "It is an economic system that combines social ownership of capital with market allocation of capital...The state owns the means of production, and returns accrue to society at large."
- ^ Social Dividend versus Basic Income Guarantee in Market Socialism, by Marangos, John. 2004. International Journal of Political Economy, vol. 34, no. 3, Fall 2004.
- ^ "Cooperative Economics: An Interview with Jaroslav Vanek". Interview by Albert Perkins. Retrieved March 17, 2011.
- ^ McNally, David (1993). Against the Market: Political Economy, Market Socialism and the Marxist Critique. Verso. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-86091-606-2.
...by the 1820s, 'Smithian' apologists for industrial capitalism confronted 'Smithian' socialists in a vigorous, and often venomous, debate over political economy.
- ^ Lord Sacks, "Rediscovering Religious Values in the Market Economy", HuffPost, February 11, 2012
- ^ "Liberation theology", BBC, July 18, 2011
- ^ Kathleen Maclay, "Buddhist economics: oxymoron or idea whose time has come?", Berkeley News, March 13, 2014
- ^ Michie, Jonathan (January 1, 2001). Reader's Guide to the Social Sciences. Routledge. p. 1012. ISBN 978-1579580919.
Stiglitz criticizes the first and second welfare theorems for being based on the assumptions of complete markets (including a full set of futures and risk markets) and perfect and costless information, which are simply not true. Incentives are dubious too. Thus, capitalist markets are also not efficient and there is some role for government intervention. The ability to decentralize using the price system requires that there be no nonconvexities, but nonconvexities are pervasive.
- ^ Podobnik, Boris; Horvatic, Davor; Petersen, Alexander M.; Urošević, Branko; Stanley, H. Eugene (2010-10-26). "Bankruptcy risk model and empirical tests". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 107 (43): 18325–18330. arXiv:1011.2670. Bibcode:2010PNAS..10718325P. doi:10.1073/pnas.1011942107. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 2972955. PMID 20937903.
- ^ a b Weiss, Adam (2005-05-04). "A Comparison of Economic Democracy and Participatory Economics". ZMag. Archived from the original on 2009-04-02. Retrieved 2008-06-26.
- ^ McNally, David (1993). Against the Market: Political Economy, Market Socialism and the Marxist Critique. Verso. ISBN 978-0-86091-606-2.
enlaces externos
- Market Systems at Encyclopædia Britannica Online.