La revolución egipcia de 2011 , también conocida como la Revolución del 25 de enero (en árabe : ثورة 25 يناير ; Thawrat khamsa wa-ʿišrūn yanāyir ), [21] comenzó el 25 de enero de 2011 y se extendió por todo Egipto . La fecha fue fijada por varios grupos de jóvenes para que coincidiera con el "feriado policial" anual egipcio como declaración contra la creciente brutalidad policial durante los últimos años de la presidencia de Mubarak . Consistió en manifestaciones, marchas, ocupaciones de plazas, resistencia civil no violenta , actos de desobediencia civil y huelgas.. Millones de manifestantes de diversos orígenes socioeconómicos y religiosos exigieron el derrocamiento del presidente egipcio Hosni Mubarak . Los violentos enfrentamientos entre las fuerzas de seguridad y los manifestantes resultaron en al menos 846 personas muertas y más de 6.000 heridas. [22] [23] Los manifestantes tomaron represalias quemando más de 90 comisarías de policía en todo el país. [24]
| 2011 Revolución Egipcia ثورة 25 يناير | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Parte de la crisis egipcia y la primavera árabe | |||
 Manifestantes en la plaza Tahrir de El Cairo el 8 de febrero de 2011 | |||
| Fecha | 25 de enero de 2011 - 11 de febrero de 2011 (2 semanas y 3 días) | ||
| Localización | Coordenadas : 30 ° 2′40 ″ N 31 ° 14′8 ″ E / 30.04444 ° N 31.23556 ° E | ||
| Causado por | |||
| Métodos | |||
| Resultó en |
| ||
| Partes en el conflicto civil | |||
| |||
| Figuras de plomo | |||
| |||
| Número | |||
| 2.000.000 en la plaza Tahrir de El Cairo [15] Véase la sección Regiones a continuación. | |||
| Damnificados | |||
| Fallecidos) |
| ||
| Lesiones | 6.467 personas [19] | ||
| Detenido | 12.000 [20] | ||
Las quejas de los manifestantes egipcios se centraron en cuestiones legales y políticas, [25] incluida la brutalidad policial , las leyes sobre el estado de emergencia, [1] la falta de libertad política , la libertad civil, la libertad de expresión , la corrupción, [2] el alto desempleo, la alimentación -El precio inflación [3] y salarios bajos. [1] [3] Las principales demandas de los manifestantes fueron el fin del régimen de Mubarak . Las huelgas de los sindicatos aumentaron la presión sobre los funcionarios del gobierno. [26] Durante el levantamiento, la capital, El Cairo , fue descrita como "una zona de guerra" [27] y la ciudad portuaria de Suez vio frecuentes enfrentamientos violentos. Los manifestantes desafiaron el toque de queda impuesto por el gobierno , que fue imposible de hacer cumplir por la policía y el ejército. Las Fuerzas Centrales de Seguridad de Egipto , leales a Mubarak, fueron reemplazadas gradualmente por tropas militares. En el caos, hubo saqueos por parte de alborotadores que fueron instigados (según fuentes de la oposición) por policías vestidos de civil. En respuesta, grupos de vigilancia fueron organizados por vigilantes civiles para proteger sus vecindarios. [28] [29] [30] [31] [32]
El 11 de febrero de 2011, el vicepresidente Omar Suleiman anunció que Mubarak dimitió como presidente, entregando el poder al Consejo Supremo de las Fuerzas Armadas (SCAF). [33] La junta militar, encabezada por el jefe de estado efectivo Mohamed Hussein Tantawi , anunció el 13 de febrero que se suspendía la constitución, que ambas cámaras del parlamento se disolvían y que los militares gobernarían durante seis meses (hasta que pudieran celebrarse elecciones). El gabinete anterior, incluido el primer ministro Ahmed Shafik , serviría como gobierno provisional hasta que se formara uno nuevo. [34]
Después de la revolución contra Mubarak y un período de gobierno del Consejo Supremo de las Fuerzas Armadas , los Hermanos Musulmanes tomaron el poder en Egipto a través de una serie de elecciones populares, y los egipcios eligieron al islamista Mohamed Morsi para la presidencia en junio de 2012, después de ganar las elecciones. sobre Ahmed Shafik . [35] Sin embargo, el gobierno de Morsi se enfrentó a una feroz oposición después de su intento de aprobar una constitución de tendencia islámica. Morsi también emitió un decreto presidencial temporal que elevó sus decisiones sobre la revisión judicial para permitir la aprobación de la constitución. [36] Desató la indignación general de los laicos y miembros del ejército, y estallaron protestas masivas contra su gobierno el 28 de junio de 2013. [37] El 3 de julio de 2013, Morsi fue depuesto por un golpe de estado encabezado por el ministro de defensa, el general Abdel Fattah El-Sisi , [38] mientras millones de egipcios salieron a las calles en apoyo de las elecciones anticipadas. [39] El-Sisi se convirtió en presidente de Egipto por elección popular en 2014 . [40]
Otros nombres
En Egipto y otras partes del mundo árabe, las protestas y los cambios gubernamentales también se conocen como la Revolución del 25 de enero ( ثورة 25 يناير Thawrat 25 Yanāyir ), Freedom Revolution ( ثورة حرية Thawrat Horeya ) [41] o Rage Revolution ( ثورة الغضب Thawrat al-Ġaḍab ), y (con menos frecuencia) [42] la Revolución Juvenil ( ثورة الشباب Thawrat al-Shabāb ), la Revolución del Loto [43] ( ثورة اللوتس ) o la Revolución Blanca ( الثورة البيضاء al-Thawrah al-bayḍāʾ ). [44]
Fondo
Hosni Mubarak se convirtió en presidente de Egipto después del asesinato de Anwar Sadat en 1981. El Partido Nacional Democrático (NDS) de Mubarak mantuvo el gobierno de partido único. [45] Su gobierno recibió el apoyo de Occidente y la ayuda de los Estados Unidos por su represión de los militantes islámicos y la paz con Israel . [45] Mubarak fue comparado a menudo con un faraón egipcio por los medios de comunicación y algunos críticos, debido a su gobierno autoritario. [46] Estaba en el trigésimo año de su reinado cuando comenzó la Revolución de 2011. [47]
Herencia del poder
Se esperaba que el hijo menor de Mubarak sucediera a su padre como el próximo presidente de Egipto en 2000. [48] Gamal comenzó a recibir atención de los medios egipcios, ya que aparentemente no había otros herederos de la presidencia. [49] El ascenso al poder de Bashar al-Assad en Siria en junio de 2000, horas después de la muerte de Hafez al-Assad , provocó un debate en la prensa egipcia sobre las perspectivas de un escenario similar en El Cairo. [50]
Durante los años posteriores a la reelección de Mubarak en 2005 , varios grupos políticos de izquierda y derecha (principalmente no oficiales) expresaron su oposición a la herencia del poder, exigieron reformas y solicitaron elecciones con múltiples candidatos. En 2006, con el aumento de la oposición, Daily News Egypt informó sobre una iniciativa de campaña en línea (la Iniciativa Nacional contra la Herencia del Poder) que exigía que Gamal redujera su poder. La campaña decía: "El presidente Mubarak y su hijo negaron constantemente incluso la posibilidad de [sucesión]. Sin embargo, en realidad hicieron lo contrario, incluida la enmienda de la constitución para asegurarse de que Gamal será el único candidato indiscutido". [51]
Durante la década, creció la percepción pública de que Gamal sucedería a su padre. Ejerció un poder cada vez mayor como secretario general adjunto del NDP y presidente del comité de política del partido. Los analistas describieron la última década de Mubarak en el poder como "la era de Gamal Mubarak". Con la salud de su padre empeorando y sin un vicepresidente designado, algunos lo consideraban el presidente de facto de Egipto . [52] Aunque Gamal y Hosni Mubarak negaron una herencia de poder, Gamal podría ser elegido; Dado que el mandato presidencial de Hosni Mubarak expiraba en 2010, existía la especulación de que Gamal se presentaría como candidato del NDP en 2011. [53] Sin embargo, después de la protesta de enero-febrero de 2011, Gamal Mubarak dijo que no se presentaría a la presidencia en las elecciones de 2011. . [54]
Ley de emergencia
La ley de emergencia (Ley No. 162 de 1958) fue promulgada en el país después de la Guerra de los Seis Días de 1967 . Aunque se suspendió durante 18 meses a principios de la década de 1980, [55] por lo demás ha estado en vigor continuamente desde el asesinato de Anwar Sadat en 1981. [56] La ley de emergencia amplió los poderes policiales, suspendió los derechos constitucionales , legalizó la censura [57] y abolió el hábeas corpus . Limita la actividad política no gubernamental, incluidas las manifestaciones , las organizaciones políticas no aprobadas y las donaciones financieras no registradas. [55] El gobierno de Mubarak ha citado la amenaza del terrorismo al extender la ley de emergencia, [56] afirmando que grupos de oposición como los Hermanos Musulmanes podrían ganar el poder en Egipto si el gobierno no renuncia a las elecciones parlamentarias y reprime al grupo mediante una ley de emergencia. [58] Esto ha llevado al encarcelamiento de activistas sin juicio, [59] centros de detención ilegales, indocumentados y ocultos [60] y al rechazo del personal de universidades, mezquitas y periódicos por su afiliación política. [61] Una elección parlamentaria de diciembre de 2010 fue precedida por una represión de los medios, arrestos, prohibiciones de candidatos (particularmente candidatos de la Hermandad Musulmana) y acusaciones de fraude debido a la victoria casi unánime del NDP en el parlamento. [55] Las organizaciones de derechos humanos estiman que en 2010, entre 5.000 y 10.000 personas estaban detenidas de forma prolongada sin cargos ni juicio. [62] [63]
Brutalidad policial
Según un informe de la embajada de Estados Unidos, la brutalidad policial se ha generalizado en Egipto. [64] En los cinco años anteriores a la revolución, el régimen de Mubarak negó la existencia de tortura o abuso por parte de la policía. Sin embargo, los reclamos de grupos nacionales e internacionales proporcionaron videos de teléfonos celulares o relatos de primera mano de cientos de casos de brutalidad policial. [65] Según el Informe de Derechos Humanos de 2009 del Departamento de Estado de EE. UU., "Grupos de derechos humanos nacionales e internacionales informaron que el Servicio de Investigación de Seguridad del Estado (SSIS) del Ministerio del Interior (MOI), la policía y otras entidades gubernamentales continuaron empleando la tortura para extraer información o forzar confesiones. La Organización Egipcia de Derechos Humanos documentó 30 casos de tortura durante el año 2009. En numerosos juicios, los acusados alegaron que la policía los torturó durante el interrogatorio. Durante el año, activistas y observadores circularon algunos videos de teléfonos celulares de aficionados que documentaban el presunto abuso ciudadanos por parte de agentes de seguridad. Por ejemplo, el 8 de febrero, un bloguero publicó un vídeo de dos agentes de policía, identificados por sus nombres y apellidos, sodomizando a un hombre desnudo y atado llamado Ahmed Abdel Fattah Ali con una botella. El 12 de agosto, el mismo bloguero publicó dos videos de presunta tortura policial de un hombre en una comisaría de Port Said por el jefe de investigaciones, Mo Hammed Abu Ghazala. No hubo indicios de que el gobierno investigara ninguno de los casos ". [66]
El despliegue de Baltageya [67] ( árabe : بلطجية ) —policía de civil— por parte del NDP ha sido un sello distintivo del gobierno de Mubarak. [67] La Organización Egipcia de Derechos Humanos ha documentado 567 casos de tortura, incluidas 167 muertes, por parte de la policía entre 1993 y 2007. [68] Los organismos encargados de hacer cumplir la ley a menudo utilizaron una fuerza excesiva contra los levantamientos populares. [69] El 6 de junio de 2010, Khaled Mohamed Saeed murió en circunstancias controvertidas en la zona de Sidi Gaber de Alejandría , y los testigos declararon que la policía lo mató a golpes, un hecho que impulsó a los egipcios en torno al tema de la brutalidad policial. [70] [71] [72] Las autoridades declararon que Khaled murió asfixiado con hachís mientras era perseguido por agentes de policía. Sin embargo, las imágenes del cadáver desfigurado de Khaled de la morgue mostraban signos de tortura. [ cita requerida ] Una página de Facebook, "Todos somos Khaled Said", ayudó a atraer la atención nacional sobre el caso. [73] Mohamed ElBaradei , ex director de la Agencia Internacional de Energía Atómica , encabezó una manifestación en 2010 en Alejandría contra el abuso policial y visitó a la familia de Saeed para ofrecer sus condolencias. [74]
Durante las protestas de enero a febrero de 2011, la brutalidad policial fue común. Jack Shenker, reportero de The Guardian , fue arrestado durante las protestas de El Cairo el 26 de enero. Fue testigo de cómo otros manifestantes egipcios eran torturados, agredidos y llevados a lugares no revelados por agentes de policía. Shenker y otros detenidos fueron puestos en libertad tras la intervención encubierta de Ayman Nour , el padre de otro detenido. [75] [76] [77]
Corrupción electoral
La corrupción, la coacción para no votar y la manipulación de los resultados de las elecciones ocurrieron durante muchas elecciones durante el gobierno de 30 años de Mubarak. [78] Hasta 2005, Mubarak fue el único candidato presidencial (con un voto de sí o no). [79] Mubarak ganó cinco elecciones presidenciales consecutivas con una amplia mayoría. Aunque los grupos de oposición y las agencias internacionales de supervisión de elecciones acusaron a las elecciones de manipularlas, a esas agencias no se les permitió monitorear las elecciones. El único candidato presidencial de la oposición en la historia reciente de Egipto, Ayman Nour, fue encarcelado antes de las elecciones de 2005. [80] Según una encuesta de la ONU de 2007, la participación electoral fue extremadamente baja (alrededor del 25 por ciento) debido a la falta de confianza en el sistema político. [79]
Desafíos demográficos y económicos
Desempleo y dependencia de bienes subsidiados
La población de Egipto creció de 30.083.419 en 1966 [81] a aproximadamente 79.000.000 en 2008. [82] La gran mayoría de los egipcios vive cerca de las orillas del Nilo , en un área de unos 40.000 kilómetros cuadrados (15.000 millas cuadradas) donde el único se encuentra tierra cultivable . A finales de 2010, alrededor del 40 por ciento de la población de Egipto vivía con el equivalente a aproximadamente 2 dólares estadounidenses al día, y una gran parte dependía de bienes subvencionados. [1]
Según el Instituto Peterson de Economía Internacional y otros defensores del enfoque estructural demográfico ( cliodinámica ), un problema básico en Egipto es el desempleo impulsado por un aumento demográfico de la juventud ; Con el número de nuevas personas que ingresan a la fuerza laboral en alrededor del cuatro por ciento al año, el desempleo en Egipto es casi 10 veces más alto para los graduados universitarios que para aquellos que terminaron la escuela primaria (particularmente los jóvenes urbanos educados, las personas que estaban en las calles durante el revolución). [83] [84]
Economía y malas condiciones de vida
La economía de Egipto estuvo muy centralizada durante la presidencia de Gamal Abdel Nasser , y se volvió más impulsada por el mercado bajo Anwar Sadat y Mubarak. De 2004 a 2008, el gobierno de Mubarak llevó a cabo reformas económicas para atraer la inversión extranjera y aumentar el PIB, posponiendo posteriormente otras reformas debido a la Gran Recesión . La recesión económica internacional desaceleró el crecimiento del PIB de Egipto al 4,5 por ciento en 2009. En 2010, los analistas dijeron que el gobierno del primer ministro Ahmed Nazif necesitaría reanudar la reforma económica para atraer inversión extranjera, aumentar el crecimiento y mejorar las condiciones económicas. A pesar del alto crecimiento económico nacional reciente, las condiciones de vida del egipcio medio siguieron siendo relativamente pobres [85] (aunque mejores que en otras naciones africanas [83] sin trastornos sociales importantes).
Corrupción
La corrupción política en el Ministerio del Interior de la administración de Mubarak aumentó dramáticamente, debido al mayor control del sistema necesario para sostener su presidencia. [86] El ascenso al poder de poderosos empresarios en el NDP, el gobierno y la Cámara de Representantes provocó la ira pública durante el gobierno de Ahmed Nazif. Ahmed Ezz monopolizó la industria del acero, con más del 60 por ciento de participación de mercado. [87] Aladdin Elaasar, un biógrafo egipcio y profesor estadounidense, estimó que la familia Mubarak valía entre 50 y 70 mil millones de dólares. [88] [89]
La riqueza del exsecretario del NDP, Ezz, se estimó en 18.000 millones de libras egipcias ; [90] la riqueza del ex ministro de Vivienda Ahmed al-Maghraby se estimó en más de 11 mil millones de libras egipcias; [90] el del ex ministro de turismo Zuhair Garrana se estima en 13 mil millones de libras egipcias; [90] Se estima que el ex ministro de Comercio e Industria Rashid Mohamed Rashid tiene un valor de 12 mil millones de libras egipcias, [90] y el ex ministro del Interior Habib al-Adly se estima en ocho mil millones de libras egipcias. [90] La percepción entre los egipcios era que las únicas personas que se beneficiaban de la riqueza de la nación eran los empresarios vinculados al Partido Nacional Democrático: "La riqueza alimenta el poder político y el poder político compra riqueza". [91]
Durante las elecciones de 2010 , los grupos de oposición se quejaron del acoso y el fraude del gobierno. Los activistas de la oposición y los ciudadanos pidieron cambios en una serie de disposiciones legales y constitucionales que afectan a las elecciones . [ Cita requerida ] En 2010, Transparencia Internacional 's Corrupción Índice de Percepción (IPC) dio a Egipto una puntuación de 3,1 sobre la base de las percepciones de empresarios y analistas del grado de corrupción (donde 10 es limpia y totalmente corrupto 0). [92]
Preludio
¡Para prepararse para el posible derrocamiento de Mubarak, los grupos de oposición estudiaron el trabajo de Gene Sharp sobre la acción noviolenta y trabajaron con los líderes de Otpor! , la organización serbia dirigida por estudiantes . Copias de la lista de Sharp de 198 "armas" no violentas, traducidas al árabe y no siempre atribuidas a él, circularon en la plaza Tahrir durante su ocupación. [93] [94]
Revolución tunecina
Tras el derrocamiento del presidente tunecino Zine El Abidine Ben Ali tras protestas masivas, muchos analistas (incluido el ex presidente de la Comisión Europea Romano Prodi ) vieron a Egipto como el próximo país donde podría ocurrir una revolución de este tipo. [95] Según The Washington Post , "La Revolución del Jazmín [...] debería servir como una severa advertencia a los líderes árabes - comenzando con Hosni Mubarak de 83 años de Egipto - de que su negativa a permitir más oportunidades económicas y políticas es peligroso e insostenible ". [96] Otros creían que Egipto no estaba listo para la revolución, citando pocas aspiraciones por parte del pueblo egipcio, bajos niveles educativos y un gobierno fuerte con apoyo militar. [97] La BBC dijo: "El simple hecho es que la mayoría de los egipcios no ven ninguna forma de cambiar su país o sus vidas a través de la acción política, ya sea votando, activista o saliendo a las calles a manifestarse". [98]
Autoinmolación
Tras la autoinmolación de Mohamed Bouazizi en Túnez el 17 de diciembre, un hombre se prendió fuego el 18 de enero frente al parlamento egipcio [99] y siguieron cinco intentos más. [97] El 17 de enero, Abdou Abdel Monaam, un panadero, también se prendió fuego para protestar contra una ley que impedía a los dueños de restaurantes comprar pan subsidiado, lo que lo llevó a comprar pan al precio regular, que es cinco veces más alto que el subsidiado. . Mohammed Farouq Mohammed, que es abogado, también se prendió fuego frente al parlamento para protestar contra su ex esposa, que no le permitió ver a sus hijas. [100] En Alejandría, un hombre desempleado llamado Ahmed Hashem Sayed también fue víctima de autoinmolación. [101]
Protestas del Día de la Policía Nacional
Los grupos de oposición planearon una jornada de revuelta para el 25 de enero, coincidiendo con el Día de la Policía Nacional , para protestar por la brutalidad policial frente al Ministerio del Interior . [102] Los manifestantes también exigieron la renuncia del Ministro del Interior, el fin de la corrupción estatal, el fin de la ley de emergencia y los límites del mandato presidencial para el presidente.
Numerosos movimientos políticos, partidos de oposición y figuras públicas apoyaron el día de la revuelta, entre ellos Juventud por la Justicia y la Libertad, la Coalición de la Juventud de la Revolución , el Movimiento Democrático Popular por el Cambio, los Socialistas Revolucionarios y la Asociación Nacional por el Cambio . El Movimiento Juvenil 6 de Abril fue uno de los principales partidarios de la protesta, distribuyendo 20.000 folletos que decían "El 25 de enero protestaré por mis derechos". El Partido Ghad El-Thawra , Karama , Wafd y el Frente Democrático apoyaron las protestas. La Hermandad Musulmana, el grupo de oposición más grande de Egipto, [103] confirmó el 23 de enero que participaría. [104] Figuras públicas, incluido el novelista Alaa Al Aswany , el escritor Belal Fadl y los actores Amr Waked y Khaled Aboul Naga , anunciaron que participarían. El izquierdista Partido Unionista Nacional Progresista ( Tagammu ) dijo que no participaría, y la Iglesia Copta instó a los cristianos a no participar en las protestas. [103]
Asmaa Mahfouz, de 26 años, jugó un papel decisivo [105] en el desencadenamiento de las protestas. [106] [107] En un video blog publicado una semana antes del Día de la Policía Nacional, [108] instó al pueblo egipcio a unirse a ella el 25 de enero en la plaza Tahrir para derrocar al régimen de Mubarak. [109] El uso de Mahfouz de los blogs de video y las redes sociales se volvió viral [110] e instó a la gente a no tener miedo. [111] El grupo de Facebook para el evento atrajo a 80.000 personas.
(Pre-) revolución timeline
Farouk a Mubarak
La mayoría de las causas de la revolución egipcia de 2011 contra Mubarak también existieron en 1952, cuando los Oficiales Libres derrocaron al rey Farouk : [112] poder heredado, corrupción, subdesarrollo, desempleo, distribución injusta de la riqueza y la presencia de Israel. Una nueva causa de la Primavera Árabe es el aumento de la población, que aumentó el desempleo. La primera señal a lo largo del camino a Mubarak fue la guerra de 1967 entre Egipto e Israel . La derrota de Gamal Abdel Nasser llevó a Anwar Sadat al poder después de la muerte de Nasser en 1970. Sadat deshizo las reformas sociales de Nasser y su dependencia de la Unión Soviética, prediciendo su colapso casi dos décadas antes de que ocurriera.
Sadat descuidó la modernización de Egipto y su amiguismo le costó al país industrias de infraestructura que podrían generar nuevos puestos de trabajo. Hosni Mubarak lo sucedió después de la muerte de Sadat en 1981. Sin experiencia académica o gubernamental, Mubarak implementó el gobierno de emergencia durante sus 30 años en el cargo, sin nombrar un vicepresidente hasta que lo presionaron para que renunciara. Los medios de comunicación como Internet, teléfonos celulares y canales de televisión por satélite aumentaron las mezquitas y las oraciones de los viernes, medios tradicionales de comunicación masiva. Las mezquitas llevaron a la Hermandad Musulmana al poder, y la Hermandad ha presionado a todos los gobiernos desde 1928 hasta 2011 (como también lo hace en los países vecinos). [113]
Bajo Mubarak
25 de enero de 2011 ("Día de la revuelta") : estallaron protestas en todo Egipto, con decenas de miles de personas reunidas en El Cairo y miles más en otras ciudades egipcias. Las protestas se dirigieron al gobierno de Mubarak; aunque en su mayoría no fueron violentos, hubo algunos informes de víctimas civiles y policiales.
26 de enero de 2011 : disturbios civiles en Suez y otras zonas del país. La policía arrestó a muchos activistas.
27 de enero de 2011 : el gobierno cierra cuatro ISP importantes aproximadamente a las 5:20 pm EST. [114] perturbando el tráfico de Internet y los servicios telefónicos [115]
28 de enero de 2011 : comenzaron las protestas del "Viernes de la ira", con cientos de miles de personas manifestadas en El Cairo y otras ciudades egipcias después de las oraciones del viernes. El líder de la oposición, Mohamed ElBaradei, llegó a El Cairo en medio de informes de saqueos. Se abrieron e incendiaron cárceles, supuestamente por orden del ministro del Interior, Habib El Adly. Los reclusos escaparon en masa , en lo que se creía que era un intento de aterrorizar a los manifestantes. Se retiró a la policía de las calles y se desplegó al ejército. Aumentaron los temores internacionales a la violencia, pero no se informó de víctimas importantes. Mubarak hizo su primer discurso a la nación, comprometiéndose a formar un nuevo gobierno. Más tarde esa noche, estallaron enfrentamientos en la plaza Tahrir entre revolucionarios y manifestantes a favor de Mubarak, lo que provocó víctimas. No se han reportado víctimas mortales en El Cairo, sin embargo, 11 personas murieron en Suez y otras 170 resultaron heridas. 1.030 personas resultaron heridas en todo el país.
29 de enero de 2011 : Incremento de la presencia militar en El Cairo. Se impuso un toque de queda, que fue ampliamente ignorado mientras el flujo de manifestantes hacia la plaza Tahrir continuó durante la noche. Según los informes, los militares se negaron a seguir las órdenes de disparar munición real, ejerciendo una moderación general; no hubo informes de víctimas importantes. El 31 de enero, los medios israelíes informaron que se había ordenado a las divisiones 9, 2 y 7 del ejército egipcio que ingresaran en El Cairo para ayudar a restablecer el orden. [116]
1 de febrero de 2011 : Mubarak hizo otro discurso televisado, ofreciendo varias concesiones. Prometió reformas políticas y dijo que no se presentaría a las elecciones previstas para septiembre, pero que permanecería en el cargo para supervisar una transición pacífica. Esa noche comenzaron pequeños pero violentos enfrentamientos entre grupos pro y anti-Mubarak.
2 de febrero de 2011 (incidente del camello) : la violencia se intensificó cuando oleadas de partidarios de Mubarak se reunieron con manifestantes antigubernamentales; algunos partidarios de Mubarak entraron en camellos y caballos a la plaza Tahrir, al parecer empuñando palos. El ataque resultó en 3 muertos y 600 heridos. [117] Mubarak reiteró su negativa a dimitir en entrevistas con varias agencias de noticias. La violencia contra periodistas y reporteros se intensificó, en medio de especulaciones de que Mubarak lo alentó a poner fin a las protestas. Los jinetes de camellos y caballos afirmaron más tarde que eran "buenos hombres" y se opusieron a las protestas porque querían que los turistas regresaran para conservar sus trabajos y alimentar a sus animales. Los jinetes de caballos y camellos niegan haber sido pagados por nadie, aunque dijeron que un diputado del partido gobernante les informó sobre las protestas. Human Rights Watch informó de la muerte de 300 personas al día siguiente, desde el 25 de enero. [118] [119] Wael Ghonim, ejecutivo de Google y creador de la página We are all Khaled Said , fue reportado como desaparecido y la compañía pidió al público que lo ayudara a encontrarlo. [120]
6 de febrero de 2011 : se celebró un servicio interreligioso con cristianos y musulmanes egipcios en la plaza Tahrir. Las negociaciones entre el vicepresidente egipcio Omar Suleiman y los representantes de la oposición comenzaron durante las continuas protestas en todo el país. El ejército egipcio asumió mayores responsabilidades de seguridad, manteniendo el orden y custodiando el Museo Egipcio de la Antigüedad . Suleiman ofreció reformas, mientras que otros en el régimen de Mubarak acusaron a naciones extranjeras (incluido Estados Unidos) de interferir en los asuntos de Egipto.
10 de febrero de 2011 : Mubarak se dirigió al pueblo egipcio en medio de especulaciones sobre un golpe militar. En lugar de renunciar (lo que era ampliamente esperado), dijo que delegaría algunos poderes al vicepresidente Suleiman mientras seguía siendo el jefe de estado de Egipto. La declaración de Mubarak fue recibida con ira, frustración y decepción, y en varias ciudades hubo una escalada en el número y la intensidad de las manifestaciones.
11 de febrero de 2011 ("Viernes de partida") : Continuaron las grandes protestas en muchas ciudades, ya que los egipcios se negaron a aceptar las concesiones de Mubarak. A las 6:00 pm Suleiman anunció la renuncia de Mubarak, confiando al Consejo Supremo de las Fuerzas Armadas de Egipto el liderazgo del país.
Cronología de la posrevolución
Bajo el Consejo Supremo de las Fuerzas Armadas
13 de febrero de 2011 : el Consejo Supremo disolvió el parlamento de Egipto y suspendió la constitución en respuesta a las demandas de los manifestantes. El consejo declaró que ejercería el poder durante seis meses o hasta que se pudieran celebrar elecciones. Se hicieron llamados para que el consejo proporcione detalles y horarios y plazos más específicos. Las principales protestas disminuyeron, pero no terminaron. En un gesto hacia un nuevo comienzo, los manifestantes limpiaron y renovaron la Plaza Tahrir (el epicentro de las manifestaciones); sin embargo, muchos se comprometieron a seguir protestando hasta que se hubieran cumplido todas las demandas.
17 de febrero : El ejército dijo que no presentaría un candidato en las próximas elecciones presidenciales. [121] Cuatro figuras importantes del antiguo régimen fueron arrestadas ese día: el ex ministro del Interior Habib el-Adly , el ex ministro de Vivienda Ahmed Maghrabi , el ex ministro de Turismo HE Zuheir Garana y el magnate del acero Ahmed Ezz . [122]
2 de marzo : El referéndum constitucional estaba provisionalmente programado para el 19 de marzo de 2011 [123].
3 de marzo : un día antes de que se planificaran grandes protestas contra él, Ahmed Shafik dimitió como primer ministro y fue reemplazado por Essam Sharaf . [124]
5 de marzo : varios edificios de la Inteligencia de Seguridad del Estado (SSI) en todo Egipto fueron allanados por manifestantes, incluida la sede de la gobernación de Alejandría y la sede nacional en Nasr City , El Cairo. Los manifestantes dijeron que allanaron los edificios para asegurar los documentos que creían que probaban los crímenes del SSI contra el pueblo de Egipto durante el gobierno de Mubarak. [125] [126]
6 de marzo : Desde la sede de Nasr City, los manifestantes obtuvieron pruebas de vigilancia masiva y manipulación de votos, y observaron salas llenas de cintas de video, montones de documentos destrozados y quemados y celdas en las que los activistas contaban sus experiencias de detención y tortura. [127]
19 de marzo : Se aprueba el referéndum constitucional con el 77,27 por ciento de los votos. [128]
22 de marzo : Partes del edificio del Ministerio del Interior se incendiaron durante las manifestaciones policiales en el exterior. [129]
23 de marzo : El gabinete egipcio ordena una ley que penaliza las protestas y huelgas que obstaculizan el trabajo en establecimientos públicos o privados. Según la nueva ley, cualquier persona que organice este tipo de protestas estará sujeta a pena de prisión o una multa de 500.000 EGP (unos 100.000 dólares estadounidenses). [130]
1 de abril ("Día de la salvación de la revolución") : unos 4.000 manifestantes llenaron la plaza Tahrir para la protesta más grande en semanas, exigiendo que el consejo militar gobernante desmantele más rápidamente los aspectos persistentes del antiguo régimen; [131] Los manifestantes también exigieron juicios para Hosni Mubarak , Gamal Mubarak , Ahmad Fathi Sorour , Safwat El-Sherif y Zakaria Azmi .
8 de abril ("Viernes de purificación") : decenas de miles de manifestantes llenaron de nuevo la plaza Tahrir, criticando al Consejo Supremo de las Fuerzas Armadas por no cumplir con sus demandas: la dimisión de las figuras del régimen restantes y la destitución del fiscal de Egipto, debido a la lentitud de las investigaciones de exfuncionarios corruptos. [132]
7 de mayo : Ataques a la iglesia de Imbaba , en los que musulmanes salafistas atacaron iglesias cristianas coptas en el barrio obrero de Imbaba en El Cairo . [133]
27 de mayo ("Segundo viernes de la ira", "Segunda revolución de la ira" o "La segunda revolución") : Decenas de miles de manifestantes llenaron la plaza Tahrir [134], además de las manifestaciones en Alejandría, Suez, Ismailia y Gharbeya, en las manifestaciones más grandes desde el derrocamiento del régimen de Mubarak. Los manifestantes exigieron que no se realicen juicios militares para los civiles, que se restaure la Constitución egipcia antes de las elecciones parlamentarias y que todos los miembros del antiguo régimen (y los que mataron a los manifestantes en enero y febrero) sean juzgados.
1 de julio ("Viernes de retribución") : miles de manifestantes se reunieron en Suez, Alejandría y la plaza Tahrir para expresar su frustración con el gobernante Consejo Supremo de las Fuerzas Armadas por lo que llamaron la lentitud del cambio, cinco meses después de la revolución, algunos También temía que los militares gobernaran Egipto de forma indefinida. [135]
8 de julio ("Viernes de determinación") : Cientos de miles de manifestantes se reunieron en Suez, Alejandría y la plaza Tahrir para exigir una reforma inmediata y un enjuiciamiento más rápido de los ex funcionarios del gobierno derrocado. [136]
15 de julio : Continúan las protestas en la plaza Tahrir.
23 de julio : Miles de manifestantes intentaron marchar hacia el Ministerio de Defensa después de un discurso de Mohammed Tantawi en conmemoración de la Revolución Egipcia de 1952 , pero se encontraron con contrainsurgentes con palos, piedras y cócteles Molotov.
1 de agosto : los soldados egipcios se enfrentaron con los manifestantes y derribaron tiendas de campaña. Fueron arrestadas 66 personas. [ cita requerida ]
6 de agosto : Cientos de manifestantes se reunieron y rezaron en la plaza Tahrir antes de ser atacados por soldados. [137]
9 de septiembre ( ataque a la embajada israelí en 2011 ; el "viernes de corregir el camino") : decenas de miles de personas protestaron en Suez, Alejandría y El Cairo; sin embargo, los manifestantes islamistas estuvieron ausentes.
9 de octubre ( manifestaciones de Maspero ) : [138] [139] A última hora de la tarde del 9 de octubre, durante una protesta en el edificio de la televisión Maspiro , [140] manifestantes egipcios pacíficos que pedían la disolución del Consejo Supremo de las Fuerzas Armadas, la dimisión del presidente, el mariscal de campo Mohamed Tantawi y la destitución del gobernador de la provincia de Asuán fueron atacadas por la policía militar. Al menos 25 personas [141] murieron y más de 200 resultaron heridas.
19 November: Clashes erupted as demonstrators reoccupied Tahrir Square. Central Security Forces used tear gas to control the situation.[142]
20 November: Police attempted to forcibly clear the square, but protesters returned in more than double their original numbers. Fighting continued through the night, with police using tear gas, beating and shooting demonstrators.[142]
21 November: Demonstrators returned to the square, with Coptic Christians standing guard as Muslims protesting the regime pause for prayers. The Health Ministry said that at least 23 died and over 1,500 were injured since 19 November.[142] Solidarity protests were held in Alexandria and Suez.[143] Dissident journalist Hossam el-Hamalawy told Al Jazeera that Egyptians would begin a general strike because they "had enough" of the SCAF.[144]
28 November 2011 – 11 January 2012: Parliamentary elections
17 December 2011: The Institute d'Egypte caught fire during clashes between protesters and Egyptian military; thousands of rare documents burned.[145]
23 January 2012: Democratically elected representatives of the People's Assembly met for the first time since Egypt's revolution, and the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces gave them legislative authority.[146][147][148]
24 January: Field Marshal Hussein Tantawi said that the decades-old state of emergency would be partially lifted the following day.[149][150][151][152]
12 April: An administrative court suspended the 100-member constitutional assembly tasked with drafting a new Egyptian constitution.[153][154][155]
23–24 May: First round of voting in the first presidential election since Hosni Mubarak was deposed.
31 May: The decades-long state of emergency expired.[156][157]
2 June: Mubarak and his former interior minister Habib al-Adli were sentenced to life in prison because of their failure to stop the killing during the first six days of the revolution. The former president, his two sons and a business tycoon were acquitted of corruption charges because the statute of limitations had expired. Six senior police officials were also acquitted for their role in the killing of demonstrators, due to lack of evidence.[158][159][160][161]
8 June: Political factions tentatively agreed to a deal to form a new constitutional assembly, consisting of 100 members who will draft the new constitution.[162]
12 June: When the Egyptian parliament met to vote for members of a constitutional assembly dozens of secular MPs walked out, accusing Islamist parties of trying to dominate the panel.[163]
13 June: After Egypt's military government imposed de facto martial law (extending the arrest powers of security forces), the Justice Ministry issued a decree giving military officers authority to arrest civilians and try them in military courts.[164][165][166][167] The provision remains in effect until a new constitution is introduced, and could mean those detained could remain in jail for that long according to state-run Egy News.[168]
14 June: The Egyptian Supreme Constitutional Court ruled that a law passed by Parliament in May, banning former regime figures from running for office, was unconstitutional; this ended a threat to Ahmed Shafik's candidacy for president during Egypt's 2012 presidential election. The court ruled that all articles making up the law regulating the 2011 parliamentary elections were invalid, upholding a lower-court ruling which found that candidates running on party slates were allowed to contest the one-third of parliamentary seats reserved for independents. The Egyptian parliament was dissolved, and the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces resumed legislative authority. The SCAF said that it would announce a 100-person assembly to write the country's new constitution.[168][169][170][171][172]
15 June: Security forces were stationed around Parliament to bar anyone, including lawmakers, from entering the chambers without official authorisation.[173][174]
16–17 June: Second round of voting in the Egyptian presidential election. The SCAF issued an interim constitution,[175][176][177][178][179][180][181][182] giving itself the power to control the prime minister, legislation, the national budget and declarations of war without oversight, and chose a 100-member panel to draft a permanent constitution.[174][183] Presidential powers include the power to choose his vice president and cabinet, to propose the state budget and laws and to issue pardons.[178] The interim constitution removed the military and the defense minister from presidential authority and oversight.[166][178] According to the interim constitution, a permanent constitution must be written within three months and be subject to a referendum 15 days later. When a permanent constitution is approved, a parliamentary election will be held within a month to replace the dissolved parliament.[176][177][178][179]
18 June: The SCAF said that it picked a 100-member panel to draft a permanent constitution[174] if a court strikes down the parliament-picked assembly, planning a celebration at the end of June to mark the transfer of power to the new president.[166][184] Muslim Brotherhood candidate Mohamed Morsi declared himself the winner of the presidential election.[176][177]
19–24 June: Crowds gathered in Tahrir Square to protest the SCAF's dissolution of an elected, Islamist parliament and await the outcome of the presidential election.[185][186][187][188][189][190][191]
24 June: Muslim Brotherhood candidate Mohamed Morsi, the first Islamist elected head of an Arab state, is declared the winner of the presidential election by the Egyptian electoral commission.[192][193][194][195][196][197]
26 June: The Supreme Administrative Court revoked Decree No. 4991/2012 from the Minister of Justice, which granted military intelligence and police the power to arrest civilians (a right previously reserved for civilian police officers).[183][198][199][200]
27–28 June: After the first Constituent Assembly of Egypt was declared unconstitutional and dissolved in April by Egypt's Supreme Administrative Court, the second constituent assembly met to establish a framework for drafting a post-Mubarak constitution.[201][202]
29 June: Mohamed Morsi took a symbolic oath of office in Tahrir Square, affirming that the people are the source of power.[203][204][205]
30 June: Morsi was sworn in as Egypt's first democratically elected president before the Supreme Constitutional Court at the podium used by U.S. President Barack Obama to reach out to the Islamic world in 2009 in his A New Beginning speech.[206][207][208][209][210]
Under President Mohamed Morsi
For a chronological summary of the major events which took place after the 2011–2012 Egyptian revolution under President Mohamed Morsi, see Timeline of the 2011–2012 Egyptian revolution (Post-revolution timeline).
November 2012 declaration
On 22 November 2012, Morsi issued a declaration immunizing his decrees from challenge and attempting to protect the work of the constituent assembly drafting the new constitution.[211] The declaration required a retrial of those acquitted of killing protesters, and extended the constituent assembly's mandate by two months. The declaration also authorized Morsi to take any measures necessary to protect the revolution. Liberal and secular groups walked out of the constituent assembly because they believed that it would impose strict Islamism, while the Muslim Brotherhood supported Morsi.[212][213]
Morsi's declaration was criticized by Constitution Party leader Mohamed ElBaradei (who said that he had "usurped all state powers and appointed himself Egypt's new pharaoh"),[214] and led to violent protests throughout the country.[215] Protesters again erected tents in Tahrir Square, demanding a reversal of the declaration and the dissolving of the constituent assembly. A "huge protest" was planned for Tuesday, 27 November,[216] with clashes reported between protesters and police.[217] The declaration was also condemned by Amnesty International UK.[218]
In April 2013 a youth group was created opposing Morsi and attempting to collect 22 million signatures by 30 June 2013 (the first anniversary of his presidency) on a petition demanding early presidential elections. This triggered the June 2013 protests. Although protests were scheduled for 30 June, opponents began gathering on the 28th.[219] Morsi supporters (primarily from Islamic parties) also protested that day.[220] On 30 June the group organized large protests in Tahrir Square and the presidential palace demanding early presidential elections, which later spread to other governorates.[221]
June—July 2013 protests and overthrow
On 30 June 2013, marking the first anniversary of Morsi's inauguration as president, millions of Egyptians protested against him, demanding he step down from office. Morsi refused to resign. A 48-hour ultimatum was issued to him, demanding that he respond to the demands of the Egyptians,[222] and on 3 July 2013, the President of Egypt was overthrown. Unlike the imposition of martial law which followed the 2011 resignation of Hosni Mubarak, on 4 July 2013, a civilian senior jurist Adly Mansour was appointed interim president and was sworn in over the new government following Morsi's removal. Mansour had the right to issue constitutional declarations and vested executive power in the Supreme Constitutional Court, giving him executive, judicial and constitutional power.[223] Morsi refused to accept his removal from office, and many supporters vowed to reinstate him. They originally intended their sit-ins to celebrate Morsi's first anniversary, but they quickly became opposed to the new authorities.[224] Their sit-ins were dispersed on 14 August that year by security forces, leading to at least 904 civilian deaths and 8 police officers killed.[225][226]
On 18 January 2014, the interim government institutionalised a new constitution following a referendum in which 98.2% of voters were supportive. Participation was low with only 38.6% of registered voters participating[227] although this was higher than the 33% who voted in a referendum during Morsi's tenure.[228] On 26 March 2014 Abdel Fattah el-Sisi the head of the Egyptian Armed Forces, who at this time was in control of the country, resigned from the military, announcing he would stand as a candidate in the 2014 presidential election.[229] The poll, which had a 47% turnout, and was held between 26 and 28 May 2014, resulted in a resounding victory for el-Sisi.[230] Sisi sworn into office as President of Egypt on 8 June 2014.
Protestas por ciudad
Cairo
Cairo has been at the centre of the revolution; the largest protests were held in downtown Tahrir Square, considered the "protest movement's beating heart and most effective symbol".[231] During the first three days of the protests there were clashes between the central security police and demonstrators, but on 28 January the police withdrew from all of Cairo. Citizens formed neighbourhood-watch groups to maintain order, and widespread looting was reported. Traffic police were reintroduced to Cairo the morning of 31 January.[232] An estimated two million people protested at Tahrir Square.[citation needed] During the protests, reporters Natasha Smith, Lara Logan and Mona Eltahawy were sexually assaulted while covering the events.[233][234][235][236]
Alexandria
Alexandria, home of Khaled Saeed, experienced major protests and clashes with police. There were few confrontations between demonstrators, since there were few Mubarak supporters (except for a few police-escorted convoys). The breakdown of law and order, including the general absence of police from the streets, continued until the evening of 3 February. Alexandria's protests were notable for the joint presence of Christians and Muslims in the events following the church bombing on 1 January, which sparked protests against the Mubarak regime.
Mansoura
In the northern city of Mansoura, there were daily protests against the Mubarak regime beginning on 25 January; two days later, the city was called a "war zone".[citation needed] On 28 January, 13 were reported dead in violent clashes; on 9 February, 18 more protesters died. One protest, on 1 February, had an estimated attendance of one million. The remote city of Siwa had been relatively calm,[237] but local sheikhs reportedly in control put the community under lockdown after a nearby town was burned.[238]
Suez
Suez also saw violent protests. Eyewitness reports suggested that the death toll was high, although confirmation was difficult due to a ban on media coverage in the area.[239] Some online activists called Suez Egypt's Sidi Bouzid (the Tunisian city where protests began).[240] On 3 February, 4,000 protesters took to the streets to demand Mubarak's resignation.[241] A labour strike took place on 8 February,[242] and large protests were held on 11 February.[243] The MENA news agency reported the death of two protestors and one police officers on 26 January.[244]
Other cities
There were protests in Luxor.[245] On 11 February police opened fire on protesters in Dairut, tens of thousands of protesters took to the streets of Shebin el-Kom, thousands protested in El-Arish on the Sinai Peninsula,[243] large protests took place in the southern cities of Sohag and Minya and nearly 100,000 people protested in and around local-government headquarters in Ismaïlia.[243] Over 100,000 protesters gathered on 27 January in front of the city council in Zagazig.[246] Bedouins in the Sinai Peninsula fought security forces for several weeks.[247] As a result of the decreased military border presence, Bedouin groups protected the borders and pledged their support of the revolution.[248] However, despite mounting tension among tourists no protests or civil unrest occurred in Sharm-El-Sheikh.[249]
Fallecidos
Before the protests six cases of self-immolation were reported, including a man arrested while trying to set himself afire in downtown Cairo.[250] The cases were inspired by (and began one month after) the acts of self-immolation in Tunisia which triggered the Tunisian revolution. The self-immolators included Abdou Abdel-Moneim Jaafar,[251] Mohammed Farouk Hassan,[252] Mohammed Ashour Sorour[253] and Ahmed Hashim al-Sayyed, who later died from his injuries.[254]
As of 30 January, Al Jazeera reported as many as 150 deaths in the protests.[255]
By 29 January, 2,000 people were confirmed injured.[256] That day, an employee of the Azerbaijani embassy in Cairo was killed on their way home from work;[257] the following day, Azerbaijan sent a plane to evacuate citizens[258] and opened a criminal investigation into the killing.[259]
Funerals for those killed during the "Friday of Anger" were held on 30 January. Hundreds of mourners gathered, calling for Mubarak's removal.[260] By 1 February the protests left at least 125 people dead,[261] although Human Rights Watch said that UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Navi Pillay claimed that as many as 300 might have died in the unrest. The unconfirmed tally included 80 Human-Rights-Watch-verified deaths at two Cairo hospitals, 36 in Alexandria and 13 in Suez;[262][263][264] over 3,000 people were reported injured.[262][264]
An Egyptian governmental fact-finding commission about the revolution announced on 19 April that at least 846 Egyptians died in the nearly three-week-long uprising.[265][266][267] One prominent Egyptian who was killed was Emad Effat, a senior cleric at the Dar al-Ifta al-Misriyyah school of Al-Azhar University. He died 16 December 2011, after he was shot in front of the cabinet building.[268] At Effat's funeral the following day, hundreds of mourners chanted "Down with military rule".[268][269]
Reacción internacional
International response to the protests was initially mixed,[270] although most governments called for peaceful action on both sides and a move towards reform. Most Western nations expressed concern about the situation, and many governments issued travel advisories and attempted to evacuate their citizens from Egypt.[271]
The European Union Foreign Affairs Chief said, "I also reiterate my call upon the Egyptian authorities to urgently establish a constructive and peaceful way to respond to the legitimate aspirations of Egyptian citizens for democratic and socioeconomic reforms."[272] The United States, the United Kingdom, France and Germany issued similar statements calling for reform and an end to violence against peaceful protesters. Many states in the region expressed concern and supported Mubarak; Saudi Arabia issued a statement "strongly condemn[ing]" the protests,[273] while Tunisia and Iran supported them. Israel was cautious, with Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu asking his government ministers to maintain silence and urging Israel's allies to curb their criticism of President Mubarak;[274][275] however, an Arab-Israeli parliamentarian supported the protests. Solidarity demonstrations for the protesters were held worldwide.
Non-governmental organizations expressed concern about the protests and the heavy-handed state response, with Amnesty International describing attempts to discourage the protests as "unacceptable".[276] Many countries (including the U.S., Israel, the UK and Japan) issued travel warnings or began evacuating their citizens, and multinational corporations began evacuating expatriate employees.[277] Many university students were also evacuated.
Post-ouster
Many nations, leaders and organizations hailed the end of the Mubarak regime, and celebrations were held in Tunisia and Lebanon. World leaders, including German Chancellor Angela Merkel and UK Prime Minister David Cameron, joined in praising the revolution.[278] U.S. President Barack Obama praised the achievement of the Egyptian people and encouraged other activists, saying "Let's look at Egypt's example".[279] Amid growing concern for the country, David Cameron was the first world leader to visit Egypt (10 days after Mubarak's resignation). A news blackout was lifted as the prime minister landed in Cairo for a brief five-hour stopover, hastily added to the beginning of a planned tour of the Middle East.[280] On 15 March, United States Secretary of State Hillary Clinton visited Egypt; she was the highest-ranking U.S. official to visit the country since the handover of power from Mubarak to the military. Clinton urged military leaders to begin the process of a democratic transition, offering support to protesters and reaffirming ties between the two nations.[281]
Resultados
On 29 January Mubarak indicated that he would change the government because, despite the crossing of a "point of no return", national stability and law and order must prevail. He asked the government, formed only months ago, to step down and promised that a new government would be formed.[282] Mubarak appointed Omar Suleiman, head of Egyptian Intelligence, vice president and Ahmed Shafik prime minister.[283] On 1 February, he said he would stay in office until the next election in September, and then leave. Mubarak promised political reform, but made no offer to resign.
The Muslim Brotherhood joined the revolution on 30 January, calling on the military to intervene and all opposition groups to unite against Mubarak. It joined other opposition groups in electing Mohamed el Baradei to lead an interim government.[284]
Many of the Al-Azhar imams joined protesters throughout the country on 30 January.[285] Christian leaders asked their congregations not to participate in the demonstrations, although a number of young Christian activists joined protests led by New Wafd Party member Raymond Lakah.[286]
On 31 January, Mubarak swore in his new cabinet in the hope that the unrest would fade. Protesters in Tahrir Square continued demanding his ouster, since a vice-president and prime minister were already appointed.[287] He told the new government to preserve subsidies, control inflation and provide more jobs.[288]
On 1 February Mubarak said that although his candidacy had been announced by high-ranking members of his National Democratic Party,[289] he never intended to run for reelection in September.[290] He asked parliament for reforms:
According to my constitutional powers, I call on parliament in both its houses to discuss amending article 76 and 77 of the constitution concerning the conditions on running for presidency of the republic and it sets specific a period for the presidential term. In order for the current parliament in both houses to be able to discuss these constitutional amendments and the legislative amendments linked to it for laws that complement the constitution and to ensure the participation of all the political forces in these discussions, I demand parliament to adhere to the word of the judiciary and its verdicts concerning the latest cases which have been legally challenged.
— Hosni Mubarak, 1 February 2011[291]
Opposition groups, including the Muslim Brotherhood (MB), repeated their demand that Mubarak resign; after the protests turned violent, the MB said that it was time for military intervention.[292] Mohamed ElBaradei, who said he was ready to lead a transitional government,[293] was a consensus candidate from a unified opposition, which included the 6 April Youth Movement, the We Are All Khaled Said Movement, the National Association for Change, the 25 January Movement, Kefaya and the Muslim Brotherhood.[294] ElBaradei formed a "steering committee".[295] On 5 February, talks began between the government and opposition groups for a transitional period before elections.
The government cracked down on the media, halting internet access[296] (a primary means of opposition communication) with the help of London-based Vodafone.[297][298][299] Journalists were harassed by supporters of the regime, eliciting condemnation from the Committee to Protect Journalists, European countries and the United States. Narus, a subsidiary of Boeing, sold the Mubarak government surveillance equipment to help identify dissidents.[300]
Reforms
The revolution's primary demands, chanted at every protest, were bread (jobs), freedom, social justice and human dignity. The fulfillment of these demands has been uneven and debatable. Demands stemming from the main four include the following:
| Demand | Status | Date |
|---|---|---|
| 1. Resignation of President Mubarak |  Met | 11 February 2011 |
| 2. New minimum and maximum wages | Met | The basic minimum wage rose from EGP 246 to EGP 870 on 22 March 2015[302] |
| 3. Canceling emergency law | Met[303] | 31 May 2012 |
| 4. Dismantling the State Security Investigations Service | Claimed met;[304] reneged in 2013[305] | 31 May 2012 |
| 5. Announcement by vice-president Omar Suleiman that he would not run for president | Claimed met;[306] reneged in April 2012 | 3 February 2011 |
| 6. Dissolving Parliament | Met | 13 February 2011 |
| 7. Release of those imprisoned since 25 January |  Ongoing; More have been arrested and faced military trials under the SCAF | |
| 8. Ending the curfew | Met[307] | 15 June 2011 |
| 9. Removing the SSI-controlled university police | Claimed met | 3 March 2011 |
| 10. Investigation of officials responsible for violence against protesters | Ongoing | |
| 11. Firing Minister of Information Anas el-Fiqqi and halting media propaganda |  Not met; minister fired, ministry still exists and propaganda ongoing[308] | |
| 12. Reimbursing shop owners for losses during the curfew | Announced; Not met | 7 February 2011 |
| 13. Announcing demands on government television and radio | Claimed met | 11–18 February 2011 |
| 14. Dissolving the NDP | Met | 16 April 2011 |
| 15. Arrest, interrogation and trial of Hosni Mubarak and his sons, Gamal and Alaa | Met[309] | 24 May 2011 |
| 16. Transfer of power from SCAF to civilian council | Met[310] | 30 June 2012 |
| 17. Removal of Mohamed Morsi in a military coup, after protests in Tahrir Square and throughout Egypt | Met | 3 July 2013 |
On 17 February, an Egyptian prosecutor ordered the detention of three former ministers (interior minister Habib el-Adli, tourism minister Zuhair Garana and housing minister Ahmed el-Maghrabi) and steel magnate Ahmed Ezz pending trial for wasting public funds. The public prosecutor froze the bank accounts of Adli and his family following accusations that over 4 million Egyptian pounds ($680,000) were transferred to his personal account by a businessman. The foreign minister was requested to contact European countries to freeze the other defendants' accounts.[311]
That day, the United States announced that it would give Egypt $150 million in aid to help it transition towards democracy. U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton said that William Burns (undersecretary of state for political affairs) and David Lipton (a senior White House adviser on international economics) would travel to Egypt the following week.[311]
On 19 February a moderate Islamic party which had been banned for 15 years, Al-Wasat Al-Jadid (Arabic: حزب الوسط الجديد, New Center Party), was finally recognised by an Egyptian court. The party was founded in 1996 by activists who split from the Muslim Brotherhood and sought to create a tolerant, liberal Islamic movement, but its four attempts to register as an official party were rejected. That day, Prime Minister Ahmed Shafiq also said that 222 political prisoners would be released. Shafiq said that only a few were detained during the uprising; he put the number of remaining political prisoners at 487, but did not say when they would be released.[312] On 20 February Yehia El Gamal [ar], an activist and law professor, accepted on television the position of deputy prime minister. The next day, the Muslim Brotherhood announced that it would form a political party, the Freedom and Justice Party led by Saad Ketatni, for the upcoming parliamentary election.[313][314][315] A spokesperson said, "When we talk about the slogans of the revolution – freedom, social justice, equality – all of these are in the Sharia (Islamic law)."[316]
On 3 March, Prime Minister Shafiq submitted his resignation to the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces. The SCAF appointed Essam Sharaf, a former transportation minister and a vocal critic of the regime following his resignation after the 2006 Qalyoub rail accident, to replace Shafik and form a new government. Sharaf's appointment was seen as a concession to protesters, since he was actively involved in the events in Tahrir Square.[317][318][319] Sharaf appointed former International Court of Justice judge Nabil Elaraby foreign minister and Mansour El Essawi as interior minister.[320][321]
On 16 April the Higher Administrative Court dissolved the former ruling National Democratic Party (NDP), ordering its funds and property to be transferred to the government.[322] On 24 May it was announced that Hosni Mubarak and his sons, Gamal and Alaa, would be for over the deaths of anti-government protesters during the revolution.[323]
Trials
Mubarak's resignation was followed by a series of arrests of, and travel bans on, high-profile figures on charges of causing the deaths of 300–500 demonstrators, injuring 5,000 more, embezzlement, profiteering, money laundering and human rights abuses. Among those charged were Mubarak, his wife Suzanne, his sons Gamal and Alaa, former interior minister Habib el-Adly, former housing minister Ahmed El-Maghrabi, former tourism minister Zoheir Garana and former secretary for organizational affairs of the National Democratic Party Ahmed Ezz.[324] Mubarak's ouster was followed by allegations of corruption against other government officials and senior politicians.[325][326] On 28 February 2011, Egypt's top prosecutor ordered an assets freeze on Mubarak and his family.[327] This was followed by arrest warrants, travel bans and asset freezes for other public figures, including former parliament speaker Fathi Sorour and former Shura Council speaker Safwat El Sherif.[328][329] Arrest warrants were issued for financial misappropriations by public figures who left the country at the outbreak of the revolution, including former trade and industry minister Rachid Mohamed Rachid and businessman Hussein Salem; Salem was believed to have fled to Dubai.[330] Trials of the accused officials began on 5 March 2011, when former interior minister Habib el-Adli appeared at the Giza Criminal Court in Cairo.[331]
In March 2011 Abbud al-Zumar, one of Egypt's best-known political prisoners, was freed after 30 years. Founder and first emir of the Egyptian Islamic Jihad, he was implicated on 6 October 1981 assassination of Anwar Sadat.[332]
On 24 May, Mubarak was ordered to stand trial on charges of premeditated murder of peaceful protestors during the revolution; if convicted, he could face the death penalty. The list of charges, released by the public prosecutor, was "intentional murder, attempted killing of some demonstrators ... misuse of influence and deliberately wasting public funds and unlawfully making private financial gains and profits".[12]
Análisis
Regional instability
The Egyptian and Tunisian revolutions sparked a wave of uprisings, with demonstrations spreading across the Middle East and North Africa. Algeria, Bahrain, Iran, Jordan, Libya, Morocco, Yemen and Syria witnessed major protests, and minor demonstrations occurred in Iraq, Kuwait, Mauritania, Oman, Saudi Arabia, Somalia[citation needed] and Sudan.
The Egyptian protests in Egypt were not centred around religion-based politics, but nationalism and social consciousness.[333] Before the uprising, the best-organised and most-prominent opposition movements in the Arab world usually came from Islamist organisations with members who were motivated and ready to sacrifice. However, secular forces emerged from the revolution espousing principles shared with religious groups: freedom, social justice and dignity. Islamist organisations emerged with a greater freedom to operate. Although the cooperative, inter-faith revolution was no guarantee that partisan politics would not re-emerge in its wake, its success represented a change from the intellectual stagnation (created by decades of repression) which pitted modernity and Islamism against one another. Islamists and secularists are faced with new opportunities for dialogue on subjects such as the role of Islam and Sharia in society, freedom of speech and the impact of secularism on a predominantly Muslim population.[334]
Despite the optimism surrounding the revolution, commentators expressed concern about the risk of increased power and influence for Islamist forces in the country and region and the difficulty of integrating different groups, ideologies and visions for the country. Journalist Caroline Glick wrote that the Egyptian revolution foreshadowed a rise in religious radicalism and support for terrorism, citing a 2010 Pew Opinion poll which found that Egyptians supported Islamists over modernizers by an over two-to-one margin.[335] Another journalist, Shlomo Ben-Ami, said that Egypt's most formidable task was to refute the old paradigm of the Arab world which sees the only choices for regimes repressive, secular dictatorships or repressive theocracies. Ben-Ami noted that with Islam a central part of the society, any emergent regime was bound to be attuned to religion. In his view, a democracy which excluded all religion from public life (as in France) could succeed in Egypt but no genuine Arab democracy could disallow the participation of political Islam.[336]
Since the revolution Islamist parties (such as the Muslim Brotherhood) have strengthened in the democratic landscape, leading constitutional change, voter mobilization and protests.[337][338] This was a concern of the secular and youth movements, who wanted elections to be held later so they could catch up to the already-well-organized groups. Elections were held in September 2011, with Liberty and Justice (the Muslim Brotherhood party) winning 48.5 percent of the vote. In 2014 in Upper Egypt, several newspapers reported that Upper Egypt wanted to secede from the rest of the country to improve its standard of living.[339]
Alexandria church bombing
Early on New Year's Day 2011 a bomb exploded in front of an Alexandria church, killing 23 Coptic Christians. Egyptian officials said that "foreign elements" were behind the attack.[340] Other sources claim that the bomb killed 21 people only and injured more than 70.[341][342] Some Copts accused the Egyptian government of negligence;[343] after the attack, many Christians protested in the streets (with Muslims joining later). After clashing with police, protesters in Alexandria and Cairo shouted slogans denouncing Mubarak's rule[344][345][346] in support of unity between Christians and Muslims. Their sense of being let down by national security forces was cited as one of the first grievances sparking 25 January uprising.[347] On 7 February a complaint was filed against Habib al-Adly (interior minister until Mubarak dissolved the government during the protests' early days), accusing him of directing the attack.[348]
Role of women
Egyptian women have been participating actively in the revolution, in the same way that they played an active role in the strike movement in the few last years, in several cases pressurizing the men to join the strikes.[350] In earlier protests in Egypt, women only accounted for about 10 per cent of the protesters, but on Tahrir Square they accounted for about 40 to 50 per cent in the days leading up to the fall of Mubarak. Women, with and without veils, participated in the defence of the square, set up barricades, led debates, shouted slogans and, together with the men, risked their lives.[350] Some participated in the protests, were present in news clips and on Facebook forums and were part of the revolution's leadership during the Egyptian revolution. In Tahrir Square, female protesters (some with children) supported the protests. The diversity of the protesters in Tahrir Square was visible in the women who participated; many wore head scarves and other signs of religious conservatism, while others felt free to kiss a friend or smoke a cigarette in public. Women organised protests and reported events; female bloggers, such as Leil Zahra Mortada, risked abuse or imprisonment by keeping the world informed of events in Tahrir Square and elsewhere.[351] Among those who died was Sally Zahran, who was beaten to death during one of the demonstrations. NASA reportedly planned to name one of its Mars exploration spacecraft in Zahran's honour.[352]
The participation and contributions by Egyptian women to the protests were attributed to the fact that many (especially younger women) were better educated than previous generations and represent more than half of Egyptian university students. This is an empowering factor for women, who have become more present and active publicly. The advent of social media also provided a tool for women to become protest leaders.[351]
Role of the military
The Egyptian Armed Forces initially enjoyed a better public reputation than the police did; the former was seen as a professional body protecting the country, and the latter was accused of systemic corruption and lawless violence. However, when the SCAF cracked down on protesters after becoming the de facto ruler of Egypt the military's popularity decreased.[citation needed] All four Egyptian presidents since the 1950s have a military background. Key Egyptian military personnel include defense minister Mohamed Hussein Tantawi and armed forces chief of staff Sami Hafez Enan.[353][354] The Egyptian military numbers about 468,500 active personnel, plus a reserve of 479,000.[355]
As head of Egypt's armed forces, Tantawi has been described as "aged and change-resistant" and is attached to the old regime. He has used his position as defense minister to oppose economic and political reform he saw as weakening central authority. Other key figures (Sami Hafez Anan chief among them) are younger, with closer connections to the U.S. and the Muslim Brotherhood. An important aspect of the relationship between the Egyptian and American military establishments is the $1.3 billion in annual military aid provided to Egypt, which pays for American-made military equipment and allows Egyptian officers to train in the U.S. Guaranteed this aid package, the ruling SCAF is resistant to reform.[356][357][358] One analyst, conceding the military's conservatism, says it has no option but to facilitate democratisation. It will have to limit its political role to continue good relations with the West, and cannot restrict Islamist participation in a genuine democracy.[336]
The military has led a violent crackdown on the Egyptian revolution since the fall of Mubarak. On 9 March 2011 military police violently dispersed a sit-in in Tahrir Square, arresting and torturing protesters. Seven female protesters were forcibly subjected to virginity tests.[359] During the night of 8 April 2011 military police attacked a sit-in in Tahrir Square by protesters and sympathetic military officers, killing at least one.[360] On 9 October the Egyptian military crushed protesters under armed personnel carriers and shot live ammunition at a demonstration in front of the Maspero television building, killing at least 24.[361] On 19 November the military and police engaged in a continuous six-day battle with protestors in the streets of downtown Cairo and Alexandria, killing nearly 40 and injuring over 2,000.[362] On 16 December 2011 military forces dispersed a sit-in at the Cabinet of Ministers building, killing 17.[363] Soldiers fired live ammunition and attacked from the rooftop with Molotov cocktails, rocks and other missiles.[364]
Impact on foreign relations
Foreign governments in the West (including the U.S.) regarded Mubarak as an important ally and supporter in the Israeli–Palestinian peace negotiations.[45] After wars with Israel in 1948, 1956, 1967 and 1973, Egypt signed a peace treaty in 1979 (provoking controversy in the Arab world). According to the 1978 Camp David Accords (which led to the peace treaty), Israel and Egypt receive billions of dollars in aid annually from the United States; Egypt received over US$1.3 billion in military aid each year, in addition to economic and development assistance.[365] According to Juan Cole many Egyptian youth felt ignored by Mubarak, feeling that he put the interests of the West ahead of theirs.[366] The cooperation of the Egyptian regime in enforcing the blockade of the Gaza Strip was deeply unpopular with the Egyptian public.[367]
Online activism and social media
The 6 April Youth Movement (Arabic: حركة شباب 6 أبريل) is an Egyptian Facebook group begun in spring 2008 to support workers in El-Mahalla El-Kubra, an industrial town, who were planning to strike on 6 April. Activists called on participants to wear black and stay home the day of the strike. Bloggers and citizen journalists used Facebook, Twitter, Flickr, blogs and other media tools to report on the strike, alert their networks about police activity, organize legal protection and draw attention to their efforts. The New York Times has called it the political Facebook group in Egypt with the most dynamic debates.[368] In March 2012 it had 325,000[369] predominantly young and members, most previously inactive politically, whose concerns included free speech, nepotism in government and the country's stagnant economy. Their Facebook forum features intense and heated discussions, and is frequently updated.
We are all Khaled Said is a Facebook group which formed in the aftermath of Said's beating and death. The group attracted hundreds of thousands of members worldwide, playing a prominent role in spreading (and drawing attention to) the growing discontent. As the protests began, Google executive Wael Ghonim revealed that he was behind the account. He was later detained for a few days until the government was able to get a hold of certain information that they needed. Many questions were left around that subject, no one really understood what had actually happened or what has had been said.[370] In a TV interview with SCAF members after the revolution, Abdul Rahman Mansour (an underground activist and media expert) was disclosed as sharing the account with Ghonim.[371] Another online contribution was made by Asmaa Mahfouz, an activist who posted a video challenging people to publicly protest.[372] Facebook had previously suspended the group because some administrators were using pseudonyms, a violation of the company's terms of service.[373]
Social media has been used extensively.[374][375][376][377] As one Egyptian activist tweeted during the protests, "We use Facebook to schedule the protests, Twitter to coordinate, and YouTube to tell the world."[378] Internet censorship has also been extensive, in some cases to the extent of taking entire nations virtually offline.[379]
Facebook, Twitter and blogging helped spread the uprising. Egyptian businessman Khaled Said was beaten to death by police in June 2010, reportedly in retaliation for a video he posted showing Egyptian police sharing the spoils of a drug bust. Wael Ghonim's memorial Facebook page to Said grew to over 400,000 followers, creating an online arena where protestors and those discontented with the government could gather and organise. The page called for protests on 25 January, later known as the "Day of Wrath". Hundreds of thousands of protestors flooded the streets to show their discontent with murder and corruption in their country. Ghonim was jailed on 28 January, and released 12 days later.
Egyptian activist and 6 April Youth Movement member Asmaa Mahfouz posted a video urging the Egyptian people to meet her at Tahrir Square, rise up against the government and demand democracy. In the video, she spoke about four protesters who had immolated themselves in protest of 30 years of poverty and degradation. On 24 January Mahfouz posted another video relating efforts made in support of the protest, from printing posters to creating flyers. The videos were posted on Facebook and then YouTube. The day after her last video post, hundreds of thousands of Egyptians poured into the streets in protest.
Since 25 January 2011, videos (including those of a badly beaten Khaled Said, disproving police claims that he had choked to death), tweets and Facebook comments have kept the world abreast of the situation in Egypt. Amir Ali documents the ways in which social media was used by Egyptian activists, Egyptian celebrities and political figures abroad to fan the protests.[380]
Democracy Now! journalist Sharif Abdel Kouddous provided live coverage and tweets from Tahrir Square during the protests, and was credited with using social media to increase awareness of the protests.[381][382] The role of social media in the Egyptian uprising was debated in the first edition of the Dubai Debates: "Mark Zuckerberg – the new hero of the Arab people?"[383] Amir Ali has argued that, based in part on the Egyptian revolution, social media may be an effective tool in developing nations.[384]
Critics who downplay the influence of social networking on the Arab Spring cite several points:
- Fewer than 20 percent of Egyptians had internet access, and the internet reached less than 40 percent of the country[385]
- Social-networking sites were generally unpopular in the Middle East,[386][387]
- Such sites were not sufficiently private to evade authorities[388]
- Many people did not trust social networking as a news source[389]
- Social-networking sites were promoted by the media[390]
- Social-networking sites did not involve non-activists in the revolution[391]
Some protesters discouraged the use of social media. A widely circulated pamphlet by an anonymous activist group titled "How to Protest Intelligently" (Arabic: كيف للاحتجاج بذكاء؟), asked readers "not to use Twitter or Facebook or other websites because they are all being monitored by the Ministry of the Interior".[392]
Television, particularly live coverage by Al Jazeera English and BBC News, was important to the revolution; the cameras provided exposure, preventing mass violence by the government in Tahrir Square (in contrast to the lack of live coverage and more-widespread violence in Libya).[393] Its use was important in order to portray the violence of the Egyptian government, as well as, building support for the revolution through several different mediums. On one front was social media giving minute by minute updates via YouTube, Facebook and Twitter, and in the other hand was the use of the mainstream media to report to a wider audience about the overall developments occurring in Egypt.[394] The ability of protesters to focus their demonstrations on a single area (with live coverage) was fundamental in Egypt but impossible in Libya, Bahrain and Syria, irrespective of social-media use. A social-media expert launched a network of messages with the hashtag #jan25 on 11 February 2011, when Mubarak's resignation was announced.[395]
Social media helped secure solidarity for the revolutionaries from people outside of Egypt. This is evident through movements like the "March of Millions", "Voice of Egypt Abroad", "Egyptians Abroad in Support of Egypt" and "New United Arab States", who had their inception during the revolution inside the realms of Twitter and Facebook.[394]
Journalism scholar Heather Ford studied the use of infoboxes and cleanup templates in the Wikipedia article regarding the revolution. Ford claims that infoboxes and cleanup tags were used as objects of "bespoken-code" by Wikipedia editors. By using these elements, editors shaped the news narrative in the first 18 days of the revolution. Ford used the discussion page and the history of edits to the page. She shows how political cartoons were removed, and how the number of casualties became a source of heated debate. Her research exemplifies how editors coordinated and prioritized work on the article, but also how political events are represented through collaborative journalism.[396]
Role of media disruption on 28 January 2011
During the early morning hours of 28 January the Mubarak regime shut down internet and cell phone networks in the whole country. This media shutdown was likely one of the reasons why the numbers of protestors exploded on 28 January.
While the regime disrupted the media, people needed to engage in face-to-face communication on a local level, which the regime could not monitor or control. In such a situation it is more likely that radicals will influence their neighbors, who are not able to see the public opinion displayed in social media, therefore these people are then more likely to also engage in civil unrest.[397]
This vicious circle can be explained through a threshold model of collective behavior, which states that people are more likely to engage in risky actions if other people inside their networks (neighbors, friends, etc.) have taken action. Radicals have a small threshold and are more likely to form new networks during an information blackout, influencing the people.
Disrupting the media and communication had 2 main results: it increased the local mobilization of people and empowered radicals who influenced their surroundings, which resulted in an increase in protests.[398]
During 28 January the increased local mobilization pushed a large amount of apolitical Egyptians into action, either to look after their friends and family in the absence of mobile communication or to complain about the shutdown, resulting in large protests not only in Cairo. Meanwhile, the Mubarak regime was unable to communicate a possible threat to the protestors via social media and was therefore unable to dissuade the crowds through this mean, which spread the protests further.[397]
Post-revolutionary art
The 25 January Revolution and the fall of Hosni Mubarak the following month ushered in a new artistic era reflecting a changed social and political environment;[399] "the revolution triggered a new public culture".[400] Since its beginning, artists played a significant role in the protests; street art and music (electro or techno sha'bi) were used to craft a public culture.[401] Artists documented and captured the essence of the revolution, distributing their art through online and face-to-face social networks.[402]
Ver también
- 2011 virginity tests of protestors in Egypt
- Cross
- Cross border attacks in Sabah
- 1997 Asian financial crisis#Indonesia
- 1967 Hong Kong riots
- Lebanese Civil War
- Grigoris Lambrakis, a similar greek political activist
- Syrian Civil War
- Democracy in the Middle East
- Muslim Brotherhood in post-Mubarak electoral politics of Egypt
- Mohamed Mahmoud graffiti
- Freedom in the World
- List of freedom indices
- List of modern conflicts in the Middle East
- List of modern conflicts in North Africa
- Financial crisis of 2007-08
- 2007–08 world food price crisis
- Asmaa Mahfouz – political activist
- Ahmed Seada – political activist
- 2019 Egyptian protests
- 2016-2017 Egyptian protests
Referencias
- ^ a b c d e f "Egypt braces for nationwide protests". France 24. Agence France-Presse. 25 January 2021. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 29 January 2021.
- ^ a b c "Egypt activists plan biggest protest yet on Friday". Al Arabiya. 27 January 2011. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
- ^ a b c d e "Egypt protests a ticking time bomb: Analysts". The New Age. South Africa. Agence France-Presse. 27 January 2011. Archived from the original on 9 February 2011. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
- ^ Korotayev, A.; Zinkina, J. (2011). "Egyptian Revolution: A Demographic Structural Analysis". Entelequia. Revista Interdisciplinar. 13: 139–169.
- ^ "Egypt's prime minister quits, new govt soon-army". Forexyard.com. Archived from the original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- ^ Egypt's Mubarak Steps Down; Military Takes Over, The Wall Street Journal, 11 February 2011.
- ^ "Egypt's military moves to dissolve parliament, suspend constitution". Haaretz. Reuters. 29 November 2010. Archived from the original on 14 February 2011. Retrieved 24 February 2011.
- ^ "Egyptian state security disbanded". 15 March 2011. Archived from the original on 16 March 2011. Retrieved 15 March 2011.
- ^ Egypt dissolves former ruling party http://english.aljazeera.net/news/middleeast/2011/04/2011416125051889315.html
- ^ "How the mighty have fallen". Al-Ahram Weekly. 2 February 2011. Archived from the original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 23 March 2011.
- ^ Kirkpatrick, David D.; Stack, Liam (13 March 2011). "Prosecutors Order Mubarak and Sons Held". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 16 April 2011. Retrieved 13 April 2011.
- ^ a b "Mubarak to be tried for murder of protesters". Reuters. 24 May 2011. Archived from the original on 31 May 2011. Retrieved 24 May 2011.
- ^ "Egypt's state of emergency ends after 31 years". The Daily Telegraph. London. 31 May 2012.
- ^ "Mohammed Morsi sworn in as Egypt's president". CBS News. 30 June 2012. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
- ^ "Estimated 2 Million People Protest in _ Around Tahrir Square in Cairo Egypt.mp4 | Current News World Web Source for News and Information". Cnewsworld.com. Archived from the original on 18 February 2011. Retrieved 20 February 2011.
- ^ "846 killed in Egypt uprising". 20 April 2011. Archived from the original on 20 April 2011. Retrieved 20 April 2011.
- ^ "924 killed in Egyptian Revolution". 31 December 2011. Archived from the original on 6 January 2012. Retrieved 31 December 2011.
- ^ "Activists on Facebook: the military killed 99 and wounded 2702 in 10 months". Tahrirnews.com. 30 December 2011. Retrieved 6 January 2012.
- ^ "Egypt's revolution death toll rises to 384". Al Masry Al Youm. 22 February 2011. Archived from the original on 14 March 2011. Retrieved 22 February 2011.
- ^ Faisal Al Yafai (12 November 2012). "Egypt's army fails to grasp the post-Mubarak realities – The National". Thenational.ae. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
- ^ Egyptian-American leaders call for U.S. support of 'Lotus Revolution' – CNN.com. Edition.cnn.com. Retrieved on 2013-12-06.
- ^ "شيحة: مكاتب الصحة وثقت سقوط 840 شهيداً خلال ثورة 25 يناير". Almasry-alyoum.com. 16 March 2011. Archived from the original on 29 April 2011. Retrieved 4 April 2011.
- ^ "Egypt: Cairo's Tahrir Square fills with protesters". BBC. 8 July 2011. Archived from the original on 9 July 2011. Retrieved 11 July 2011.
- ^ "Was the Egyptian revolution really non-violent?". Egypt Independent. 24 January 2012. Retrieved 25 March 2013.
- ^ "Q&A: What's Behind the Unrest?". SBS. 27 January 2011. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
- ^ "Trade unions: the revolutionary social network at play in Egypt and Tunisia". Defenddemocracy.org. Archived from the original on 13 February 2011. Retrieved 11 February 2011.
- ^ Siddique, Haroon; Owen, Paul; Gabbatt, Adam (25 January 2011). "Protests in Egypt and unrest in Middle East – as it happened". The Guardian. UK. Archived from the original on 26 January 2011. Retrieved 26 January 2011.
- ^ Fleishman, Jeffrey and Edmund Sanders (Los Angeles Times) (29 January 2011). "Unease in Egypt as police replaced by army, neighbors band against looters". The Seattle Times. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- ^ "Looting spreads in Egyptian cities". Al Jazeera. 29 January 2011. Archived from the original on 31 January 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- ^ Hauslohner, Abigail (29 January 2011). "The Army's OK with the Protesters, for now". Time. Archived from the original on 31 January 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- ^ "Mubarak plays last card, the army; Police vanish". World Tribune (online). 31 January 2011. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- ^ Stirewalt, Chris (31 January 2011). "Egypt: From Police State to Military Rule". Fox News Channel. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- ^ "Hosni Mubarak resigns as president". Al Jazeera. 11 February 2011.
- ^ el-Malawani, Hania (13 February 2011). "Egypt's military dismantles Mubarak regime". The Sydney Morning Herald.
- ^ "Muslim Brotherhood's Mohamed Morsi declared president of Egypt". The Guardian. 24 June 2012. Retrieved 9 January 2015.
- ^ Kirkpatrick, David D.; Sheikh, Mayy El (22 November 2012). "President Morsi in Egypt Seizes New Powers". The New York Times. Retrieved 9 May 2018.
- ^ Taylor, Alan. "Millions March in Egyptian Protests". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2 May 2017.
- ^ "Morsi ousted, under house arrest, as crowds celebrate in Cairo". NBC News. 3 July 2013. Retrieved 9 January 2015.
- ^ "The Simplest Explanation of Egypt's Revolution You'll Ever Read". TakePart. Retrieved 2 May 2017.
- ^ "Sisi elected Egypt president by landslide". Al Jazeera. 30 May 2014. Retrieved 9 January 2015.
- ^ "Egypt: The Bread and Freedom Revolution |A Global Revolution". Aglobalrevolution.wordpress.com. 5 February 2011. Retrieved 25 March 2013.
- ^ "The 25 January Revolution (Special issue)". Al-Ahram Weekly. 10–16 February 2011. Archived from the original on 13 February 2011. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
- ^ "Egyptian-American leaders call for U.S. support of 'Lotus Revolution'". CNN. 28 January 2011. Archived from the original on 14 March 2011. Retrieved 21 March 2011.
- ^ "Business News » Investors See White Revolution in Egypt". 3 News NZ. 13 February 2011. Archived from the original on 30 April 2011. Retrieved 21 March 2011.
- ^ a b c Slackman, Michael (8 March 2010). "Hosni Mubarak". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 31 January 2011. Retrieved 25 January 2011.
- ^ "History's crossroads". The Indian Express. India. Retrieved 10 February 2011.
- ^ "Egypt: A Nation in Waiting". 12 February 2011. Retrieved 15 February 2011.
- ^ Aziz, Muhammad Abdul and Hussein, Youssef (2002) "The President, the Son, and the Military: Succession in Egypt" Arab Studies Journal 9/10: pp. 73–88
- ^ Bee, Jason (2008) "The Heir Apparency of Gamal Mubarak" Archived 4 April 2012 at the Wayback Machine Arab Studies Journal pp. 36–56
- ^ Sobelman, Daniel (2001) "Gamal Mubarak, President of Egypt?" Middle East Quarterly 8(2): pp. 31–40
- ^ Al-A'sar, Marwa (3 October 2006). "Egyptians abroad speak out against inheritance of power". Archived from the original on 13 May 2011. Retrieved 16 April 2011.
- ^ Gamal Essam El-Din (15 April 2011). "How Gamal brought down the whole Mubarak house". Middle East Online. Archived from the original on 30 April 2011. Retrieved 16 April 2011.
- ^ Michael Slackman; Mona el-Naggar (20 September 2006). "Mubarak's Son Proposes Nuclear Program". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 16 April 2011.
- ^ BBC (3 February 2011). "Egypt unrest: Anti-Mubarak protesters fight back". British Broadcasting Company.
- ^ a b c "Law 1958/162 (Emergency Law)". Edinburgh Middle East Report. Retrieved 2 April 2010.(registration required)
- ^ a b Egyptian Organisation for Human Rights (28 May 2008). "Egypt and The Impact of 27 years of Emergency on Human Rights". Archived from the original on 29 January 2011. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
- ^ Shehata, Samer (26 March 2004). "Egypt After 9/11: Perceptions of the United States". Contemporary Conflicts. Archived from the original on 15 July 2006. Retrieved 30 January 2011.
- ^ Caraley, Demetrios (April 2004). American Hegemony: Preventive War, Iraq, and Imposing Democracy. Academy of Political Science. ISBN 1-884853-04-8.
- ^ Choney, Suzanne (27 January 2011). "Egyptian bloggers brave police intimidation". NBC News. Retrieved 28 January 2011.
- ^ Mayer, Jane (30 October 2006). "The C.I.A.'s Travel Agent". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on 29 December 2010. Retrieved 28 January 2011.
- ^ Shenker, Jack (22 November 2010). "Egyptian Elections: Independents Fight for Hearts and Minds in 'Fixed Ballot'". The Guardian. UK. Archived from the original on 28 January 2011. Retrieved 28 January 2011.
- ^ "Egypt: Keep Promise to Free Detainees by End of June: Joint Statement" (Press release). Amnesty International. 29 June 2010. Retrieved 4 February 2011.
- ^ Holder, R. Clemente (July–August 1994). "Egyptian Lawyer's Death Triggers Cairo Protests". Washington Report on Middle East Affairs. Retrieved 31 January 2011.
- ^ Harding, Luke (28 January 2011). "US reported 'routine' police brutality in Egypt, WikiLeaks cables show". The Guardian. UK. Archived from the original on 4 May 2011. Retrieved 20 April 2011.
- ^ U.S. Embassy in Cairo (28 January 2011). "US embassy cables: Police brutality in Egypt". The Guardian. London.
- ^ U.S. Department of State. "2009 Human Rights Report: Egypt". Archived from the original on 7 April 2010. Retrieved 11 March 2010.
- ^ a b Kirkpatrick, David; Fahim, Kareem (3 February 2011). "Gunfire Rings Out as Protesters Clash". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 3 February 2011. Retrieved 3 February 2011.
- ^ "Egyptian Police Sued for Boy's Death". BBC News. 13 August 2007. Retrieved 4 February 2011.
- ^ "Arab countries' secret police forces have a reputation for torture and arbitrary arrests". D+C 2011/03 – International Journal. March 2011. Archived from the original on 21 February 2011. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
- ^ "EGYPT: Police brutality focuses minds". Gulf Daily News. 20 December 2011. Retrieved 25 June 2015.
- ^ Khalil, Ashraf (25 June 2010). "Anger in Alexandria: 'We're Afraid of Our Own Government'". Egypt Independent. Archived from the original on 27 April 2011.
- ^ "Two Witnesses Affirm Alexandria Victim Beaten by Police". Almasry Alyoum. 19 June 2010. Retrieved 26 January 2011.
- ^ Levinson, Charles (2 February 2011). "How Cairo, U.S. Were Blindsided by Revolution". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 2 February 2011. Retrieved 2 February 2011.
- ^ "ElBaradei Leads Anti-Torture Rally". Al Jazeera. 26 June 2010. Archived from the original on 2 July 2010. Retrieved 13 July 2010.
- ^ Shenker, Jack (27 January 2011). "Bloody and Bruised: The Journalist Caught in Egypt Unrest". The Guardian. London.
- ^ BBC (24 December 2005). "Profile: Ayman Nour". British Broadcasting Company.
- ^ "Profile of Ayman Nour". Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. 9 September 2009. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011.
- ^ U.S. Department of State, Embassy of Egypt (28 January 2011). "Subject: Struggling to Address Police Brutality". The Guardian. London.
- ^ a b Democracy Reporting International and Egyptian Organization for Human Rights (2007). "Final Report: Assessment of the Electoral Framework in the Arab Republic of Egypt" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016.
- ^ Sharp, Jeremy (2009). "Egypt: Background and U.S. Relations" (PDF). Congressional Research Service.
- ^ The British Oxford Economic Atlas of the World, 4th edition. ISBN 0-19-894107-2
- ^ "Central Agency for Population Mobilisation and Statistics — Population Clock (July 2008)". Msrintranet.capmas.gov.eg. Archived from the original on 8 September 2010. Retrieved 25 August 2010.
- ^ a b Korotayev, A.; Zinkina, J. (2011). "Egyptian Revolution: A Demographic Structural Analysis". Entelequia. Revista Interdisciplinar. 13: 139–169.
- ^ "The long-term economic challenges Egypt must overcome". Marketplace. 1 February 2011. Archived from the original on 4 February 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- ^ "Egypt Economy 2011". CIA World Factbook. Archived from the original on 28 February 2011. Retrieved 3 March 2011.
- ^ Rutherford, Bruce (November 2008). Egypt after Mubarak: Liberalism, Islam, and Democracy in the Arab World. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-13665-3.
- ^ The Report: Egypt 2007. Oxford Business Group. January 2007. ISBN 978-1-902339-57-3.
- ^ Elaasar, Aladdin (28 January 2011). "Egyptians Rise Against Their Pharoah". The Huffington Post. USA. Archived from the original on 7 February 2011. Retrieved 6 February 2011.
- ^ "Egypt's Mubarak Likely to Retain Vast Wealth". ABC News. Archived from the original on 7 February 2011. Retrieved 5 February 2011.
- ^ a b c d e "Obama optimistic about Egypt as negotiators make concessions". AHN. Archived from the original on 26 April 2011. Retrieved 9 February 2011.
- ^ "How did Egypt become so corrupt? – Inside Story". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 9 February 2011. Retrieved 9 February 2011.
- ^ "CPI 2010 table". Transparency International. Archived from the original on 27 October 2010. Retrieved 26 October 2010.
- ^ Kirkpatrick, David D.; David E. Sanger (13 February 2011). "A Tunisian-Egyptian link that shook Arab history". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 7 March 2011. Retrieved 27 February 2011.
- ^ "Gene Sharp: Author of the nonviolent revolution rulebook". BBC News. 21 February 2011.
- ^ Remondini, Chiara (16 January 2011). "Prodi Says Egypt to Be Monitored After Tunisia, Messaggero Says". Bloomberg. Archived from the original on 13 February 2011. Retrieved 12 February 2011.
- ^ "Tunisia's revolution should be a wake-up call to Mideast autocrats". The Washington Post. 15 January 2011. Retrieved 11 February 2011.
- ^ a b Hauslohner, Abigail (20 January 2011). "After Tunisia: Why Egypt Isn't Ready to Have Its Own Revolution". Time. Archived from the original on 4 February 2011. Retrieved 12 February 2011.
- ^ Leyne, Jon (17 January 2011). "No sign Egypt will take the Tunisian road". BBC. Archived from the original on 25 January 2011. Retrieved 11 February 2011.
- ^ Zayed, Dina (16 January 2011). "Egyptians set themselves ablaze after Tunisia unrest". Reuters. Archived from the original on 11 February 2011. Retrieved 12 February 2011.
- ^ Staff, By the CNN Wire. "2 in Egypt torch themselves; 1 dead". Retrieved 19 November 2016.
- ^ Staff, By the CNN Wire. "2 in Egypt torch themselves; 1 dead". Retrieved 19 November 2016.
- ^ "Muslim Brotherhood To Participate in 25 January Protest". Almasry Alyoum. 23 January 2011. Archived from the original on 29 April 2011. Retrieved 8 April 2011.
- ^ a b Afify, Heba (24 January 2011). "Activists Hope 25 January Protest Will Be Start of 'Something Big'". Almasry Alyoum. Archived from the original on 28 February 2011. Retrieved 14 March 2011.
- ^ "بوابة الوفد الالكترونية". Retrieved 25 June 2015.
- ^ Mekay, Emad (11 February 2011). "Arab Women Lead the Charge". Inter Press Service. Retrieved 14 March 2011.
- ^ Unveiling the Revolutionaries: Cyberactivism and the Role of Women in the Arab Uprisings (Report). 17 May 2012. SSRN 2252556.
- ^ "Women Play Vital Role in Egypt's Uprising". Tell Me More. NPR. 4 February 2011. Archived from the original on 5 February 2011. Retrieved 14 March 2011.
- ^ Asmaa Mahfouz & the YouTube Video that Helped Spark the Egyptian Uprising Democracy Now!, 8 February 2011. Retrieved 2 March 2012.
- ^ [1]. The New York Times.
- ^ Jardin, Xeni (2 February 2011). "Egypt: The Viral Vlog of Asmaa Mahfouz That Helped Spark an Uprising". Boing Boing. Retrieved 14 March 2011.
- ^ Staff writer (5 February 2011). "Asmaaa Mahfouz, a Woman Behind Egypt's Pro-Democracy Revolution". The Canadian Charger. Retrieved 14 March 2011.
- ^ El-Hewie, Mohamed F. (2011). Chain Reaction: Egypt's Revolt 2011 Illustrated. Shaymaa. pp. 1–120. ISBN 978-1461093954.
- ^ El-Hewie, Mohamed F. (2013). A Matter of Faith: The Islamic Spring. Shaymaa. p. 162. ISBN 978-1481997683.
- ^ Singel, Ryan (28 January 2011). "Egypt Shut Down Its Net With a Series of Phone Calls". Wired. Retrieved 30 April 2011.
- ^ Van Beijnum, Iljitsch (30 January 2011). "How Egypt did (and your government could) shut down the Internet". Ars Technica. Retrieved 30 April 2011.
- ^ Ehud Yaari (30 January 2011). "צפו: סיור וירטואלי במוקדי המהפכה" [Watch: Virtual Tour revolution centers] (in Hebrew). Israeli News Company. Retrieved 14 August 2013.
- ^ "Violence Erupts in Cairo; Army Mostly Stands By". Retrieved 19 November 2016.
- ^ Witzel, Annika. This is what they tell US: The US Printing Press on the 2011 Revolution in Egypt.
- ^ "Egypt protests: camel and horse riders who invaded Tahrir Square say they are 'good men'". Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 19 November 2016.
- ^ Guynn, Jessica (2 February 2011). "Google's Wael Ghonim is missing in Egypt; company asks public for help finding him". Los Angeles Times. ISSN 0458-3035. Retrieved 19 November 2016.
- ^ "Egypt army says won't field presidential candidate". Reuters.
- ^ "Egypt after Mubarak: Three ex-ministers arrested". BBC. 15 February 2011. Archived from the original on 18 February 2011. Retrieved 20 February 2011.
- ^ "Egypt sets constitutional referendum date". Financial Times. 1 March 2011. Archived from the original on 4 March 2011. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
- ^ "Egypt's prime minister quits, new govt soon-army". Reuters. 3 March 2011. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
- ^ "Egypt security building stormed". Al Jazeera. 5 March 2011. Archived from the original on 6 March 2011. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
- ^ Leithead, Alastair (8 March 2011). "Egyptians demand secret police give up torture secrets". BBC News. Archived from the original on 9 March 2011. Retrieved 8 March 2011.
- ^ Carlstrom, Gregg (6 March 2011). "A first step towards prosecutions?". Al Jazeera.
- ^ الأرقام الفعلية للتصويت (in Arabic). اللجنة القضائية العليا للإشراف علي استفتاء تعديل الدستور المصري. Archived from the original on 30 April 2011. Retrieved 20 March 2011.
- ^ "Fire sweeps Egypt's Interior Ministry building as police protest outside to demand higher pay". The Washington Post. 22 March 2011.
- ^ "New Egyptian law criminalizes protests". Al Masri Al Youm. 23 March 2011. Archived from the original on 28 December 2011.
- ^ "Protesters Scold Egypt's Military Council". Neil MacFarquhar. 1 April 2011. Archived from the original on 28 November 2011. Retrieved 2 April 2011.
- ^ "Tens of thousands in Tahrir as some threaten to extend protests | Al-Masry Al-Youm: Today's News from Egypt". Al-Masry Al-Youm. Archived from the original on 29 April 2011. Retrieved 9 April 2011.
- ^ Sami Aboudi (7 May 2011). "Egypt Sectarian Clash Leads To Multiple Deaths". The Huffington Post. Reuters. Retrieved 24 June 2012.
- ^ NRC Handelsblad (Dutch), 28 May 2011.
- ^ "Thousands of Egyptians protest against police brutality". WireUpdate. Archived from the original on 14 May 2014. Retrieved 2 July 2011.
- ^ "Hundreds of thousands revitalise Egypt'sEgypt's revolution on Determination Friday". Ahram Online. Retrieved 10 July 2011.
- ^ "Military police's latest Tahrir clampdown reignites popular anger". english.ahram.org.eg.
- ^ Gaber, Yassin (1 November 2011). "Reconstructing Maspero's Bloody Sunday: An Ahram Online investigation". Al-Ahram Online. Retrieved 10 October 2012.
- ^ Nada Hussein Rashwan (2 November 2011). "Reconstructing Maspero's Bloody Sunday: An Ahram Online investigation – Part 2". Ahram Online. Retrieved 10 October 2012.
- ^ "BBC News — Cairo clashes leave 24 dead after Coptic church protest". BBC. 9 October 2011. Retrieved 10 October 2011.
- ^ "Death toll rises in Egypt Christian clashes as tension continues — CNN.com". CNN. 11 October 2011. Retrieved 10 October 2011.
- ^ a b c Kirkpatrick, David D. (21 November 2011). "Egypt Clashes Enter 3rd Day as Military Faces Pressure". The New York Times. Retrieved 21 November 2011.
- ^ "Mon, 21 Nov 2011, 13:27 GMT+3 – Egypt". Al Jazeera Blogs. Archived from the original on 26 December 2011.
- ^ "Mon, 21 Nov 2011, 14:46 GMT+3 – Egypt". Al Jazeera Blogs. Archived from the original on 26 December 2011.
- ^ "Thousands of rare documents burned in Egypt clash". Associated Press. 19 December 2011. Retrieved 21 July 2013.
- ^ "Statement by the Press Secretary on Egypt's Transition to Democracy". Government News from the White House and Congress – Senate/House of Representatives. 24 January 2012. Archived from the original on 1 February 2016. Retrieved 25 January 2012.
- ^ Markon, Jerry (24 January 2012). "US lauds Egypt's steps toward democracy ahead of anniversary of mass protests". The Washington Post. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 26 January 2012. Retrieved 25 January 2012.
- ^ "U.S. praises Egypt's decision to lift state of emergency". Calgary Herald. 24 January 2012. Retrieved 25 January 2012.[dead link]
- ^ "Egypt's ruling generals to partially lift emergency law". BBC News. 24 January 2012. Retrieved 25 January 2012.
- ^ Chick, Kristen (25 January 2012). "Egypt's military lifts emergency law – with one big loophole". The Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 14 April 2012.
- ^ "Egypt's military leader lifts emergency law". globalpost. 24 January 2012. Retrieved 14 April 2012.
- ^ El-shenawi, Eman (24 January 2012). "Egypt's army chief lifts emergency law on eve of revolution anniversary". Al Arabiya. Retrieved 14 April 2012.
- ^ Laura Smith-Spark (12 April 2012). "Egypt's ruling generals to partially lift emergency law". CNN. Retrieved 12 April 2012.
- ^ David D. Kirkpatrick (10 April 2012). "Court Flips Egypt's Timetable: Election, Then Constitution". The New York Times. Retrieved 12 April 2012.
- ^ Tom Perry (12 April 2012). "Analysis: Egypt in tough final leg of transition". Reuters. CNN. Retrieved 12 April 2012.
- ^ Othman, Dalia (31 May 2012). "State of emergency ends, military council says will not renew". Egypt Independent. Retrieved 31 May 2012.
- ^ "Egypt lifts unpopular emergency law". CNN. 31 May 2012. Retrieved 31 May 2012.
- ^ Kirkpatrick, Patrick D. (2 June 2012). "New Turmoil in Egypt Greets Mixed Verdict for Mubarak". The New York Times. Retrieved 2 June 2012.
- ^ Leila Fadel; Ernesto Londoño (2 June 2012). "Hosni Mubarak sentenced to life for complicity in killing of protesters". The Washington Post. Retrieved 2 June 2012.
- ^ "Protesters rally after Egypt's Hosni Mubarak is sentenced to life in prison". CNN. 2 June 2012. Retrieved 2 June 2012.
- ^ Smith-Spark, Laura (2 June 2012). "For Mubarak, once Egypt's strongman, a long fall from grace". CNN. Retrieved 2 June 2012.
- ^ "Tentative deal on Egypt constituent assembly". Al Jazeera. 8 June 2012. Retrieved 14 June 2012.
- ^ "Egypt's liberals stage walkout". Al Jazeera. 12 June 2012. Retrieved 14 June 2012.
- ^ Kirkpatrick, David D. (14 June 2012). "Egypt Reimposes Martial Law, Ahead of Closely Watched Ruling". The New York Times. Retrieved 14 June 2012.
- ^ "Egypt decree grants arrest powers to military". Al Jazeera. 13 June 2012. Retrieved 14 June 2012.
- ^ a b c Kirkpatrick, David D. (18 June 2012). "Egypt's Ruling Generals Soften Tone as Islamist Wins Presidency". The New York Times. Retrieved 18 June 2012.
- ^ Londoño, Ernesto (13 June 2012). "Egypt's military given power to detain civilians days before presidential vote". The Washington Post. Retrieved 19 June 2012.
- ^ a b Mohamed Fadel Fahmy and Josh Levs (14 June 2012). "Some cry 'coup' as Egypt's highest court annuls parliament, military extends power". CNN. Retrieved 14 June 2012.
- ^ Kirkpatrick, David D. (14 June 2012). "New Political Showdown in Egypt as Court Invalidates Parliament". The New York Times. Retrieved 14 June 2012.
- ^ Ernesto Londoño; Leila Fadel (14 June 2012). "Egypt's high court calls for dissolution of parliament, raising new transition fears". The Washington Post. Retrieved 14 June 2012.
- ^ "Egypt court orders dissolving of parliament". Al Jazeera. 14 June 2012. Retrieved 14 June 2012.
- ^ Hill, Evan (14 June 2012). "Court throws Egypt transition into disarray". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 14 June 2012.
- ^ Kirkpatrick, David D. (17 June 2012). "On Eve of Vote, Egypt's Military Extends Its Power". The New York Times. Retrieved 18 June 2012.
- ^ a b c Kirkpatrick, David D. (17 June 2012). "Egypt's Military Cements Its Powers as Voting Ends". The New York Times. Retrieved 18 June 2012.
- ^ "The Constitutional Declaration (with 17 June 2012 Annex)". Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Archived from the original on 2 July 2012. Retrieved 11 July 2012.
- ^ a b c Ernesto Londoño; Leila Fadel (18 June 2012). "Egypt's presidential candidates declare victory, but military generals assert vast power". The Washington Post. Retrieved 18 June 2012.
- ^ a b c "Egyptian military holds on to power despite presidential vote". CNN. 18 June 2012. Retrieved 18 June 2012.
- ^ a b c d Hill, Evan (18 June 2012). "Background: SCAF's last-minute power grab". Al Jazeera. Retrieved 18 June 2012.
- ^ a b "English text of SCAF amended Egypt Constitutional Declaration". Ahram Online. 18 June 2012. Retrieved 18 June 2012.
- ^ "Egypt's army vows to hand power to elected president". BBC News. 18 June 2012. Retrieved 18 June 2012.
- ^ Urban, Mark (18 June 2012). "Regional impact of Egypt military's declaration". BBC. Retrieved 18 June 2012.
- ^ Kirkpatrick, David D. (18 June 2012). "After Victory, Egypt Islamists Seek to Challenge Military". The Washington Post. Retrieved 19 June 2012.
- ^ a b Randa Ali (26 June 2012). "Egypt Supreme Court blocks arrest powers for military, hailed by experts". Ahram Online. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
- ^ "Political uncertainty deepens in Egypt". Al Jazeera. 18 June 2012. Retrieved 18 June 2012.
- ^ "Egypt Elections: Key Events Timeline in Egyptian Uprising And Transition". The Huffington Post. Agence France-Presse. 24 June 2012. Archived from the original on 25 May 2013. Retrieved 24 June 2012.
- ^ Jeffrey Fleishman; Reem Abdellatif (21 June 2012). "Protesters again mass in Egypt's Tahrir Square". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 24 June 2012.
- ^ "Egypt anti-military protesters fill Tahrir Square". BBC News. 22 June 2012. Retrieved 24 June 2012.
- ^ Dina Zayed; Patrick Werr (22 June 2012). "Tahrir Square protests as Egypt awaits result". IOL News. Reuters. Retrieved 24 June 2012.
- ^ "Egyptians crowd Tahrir Square calling for end of military rule". Haaretz. Reuters. 23 June 2012. Retrieved 24 June 2012.
- ^ "Egyptians hold their breath until Sunday". Middle East Online. 23 June 2012. Retrieved 24 June 2012.
- ^ Tamim Elyan; Alastair Macdonald (23 June 2012). "Egypt's nervous wait for president ending". Reuters. Retrieved 24 June 2012.
- ^ Ernesto Londoño; Karin Brulliard (24 June 2012). "Mohamed Morsi named new Egyptian president". The Washington Post. Retrieved 24 June 2012.
- ^ Kirkpatrick, David D. (24 June 2012). "For Islamists in Egypt, Morsi Victory Is a Symbolic Win". The New York Times. Retrieved 24 June 2012.
- ^ "Muslim Brotherhood's Morsi urges 'unity' in first speech as Egypt's president-elect". CNN News. 24 June 2012. Retrieved 24 June 2012.
- ^ Levs, Josh (24 June 2012). "Egypt's new president: U.S.-educated Islamist". CNN News. Retrieved 24 June 2012.
- ^ "Muslim Brotherhood's Mursi declared Egypt president". BBC News. 24 June 2012. Retrieved 24 June 2012.
- ^ Maggie Michael; Sarah El Deeb (24 June 2012). "Mohammed Morsi, New Egyptian President, Says He Wants Unity, Peace". Agence France-Presse (AFP). Archived from the original on 20 June 2013. Retrieved 24 June 2012.
- ^ "In Egypt, the Court revoked the right of military arrest civil". European news in English. 26 June 2012. Archived from the original on 29 October 2012. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
- ^ "Administrative Court Rules in Favor of Appeal Presented by Human Rights NGOs, Revokes Decree Enabling Military Intelligence and Military Police to Arrest Civilians". Nazra for Feminist Studies. 26 June 2012. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
- ^ "Administrative Court Rules in Favor of Appeal Presented by Human Rights NGOs, Revokes Decree Enabling Military Intelligence and Military Police to Arrest Civilians". allAfrica. 26 June 2012. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
- ^ Nada Hussein Rashwan (27 June 2012). "Egypt's constituent assembly convenes Tuesday with future still in doubt". Ahram Online. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
- ^ Ahmed Aboul Enein (28 June 2012). "Constituent Assembly carries on". Daily News Egypt. Archived from the original on 2 July 2012. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
- ^ Ernesto Londoño; Haitham Mohamed (29 June 2012). "Egyptian President-elect Mohamed Morsi defiant on eve of taking office". The Washington Post. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
- ^ Kirkpatrick, David D. (29 June 2012). "Morsi Says He Will Work for Release of Sheik Jailed in U.S." The New York Times. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
- ^ Aswat Masriya (29 June 2012). "Egypt: Morsi Takes Symbolic Oath in Tahrir Square". Cairo: allAfrica. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
- ^ "New president: Egypt turns page to new era". CNN. 30 June 2012. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
- ^ Londoño, Ernesto (30 June 2012). "Islamist Morsi is sworn in as president of Egypt". The Washington Post. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
- ^ "Update: Egypt won't reverse says Morsi, vowing to support Palestinians, Syrians". Egypt News English. 30 June 2012. Archived from the original on 2 May 2013. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
- ^ Alistair Lyon; Yasmine Saleh (30 June 2012). "Army hands over power to Egypt's first Islamist president". Reuters. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
- ^ Kirkpatrick, David D. (30 June 2012). "Morsi Is Sworn In, Marking a New Stage in Egypt Struggle". The New York Times. Retrieved 30 June 2012.
- ^ "Egypt's President Mursi assumes sweeping powers". BBC News. 22 November 2012. Retrieved 23 November 2012.
- ^ "Rallies for, against Egypt president's new powers". Associated Press. 23 November 2012.
- ^ Story of the Egyptian Revolution 2011–2013 (Documentary) (in English and Arabic). Internet Archive. 15 November 2013. 10 minutes in.
- ^ Birnbaum, Michael (22 November 2012). "Egypt's President Morsi takes sweeping new powers". The Washington Post. Retrieved 23 November 2012.
- ^ Spencer, Richard (23 November 2012). "Violence breaks out across Egypt as protesters decry Mohamed Morsi's constitutional 'coup'". The Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 23 November 2012.
- ^ "Egypt activists vow further anti-Mursi protests". BBC News. 24 November 2012. Retrieved 23 November 2012.
- ^ "Clashes Break Out After Morsi Seizes New Power in Egypt". The New York Times. 23 November 2012. Retrieved 1 December 2014.
- ^ "Press Releases". Amnesty International. Archived from the original on 30 November 2012.
- ^ "Anti-Morsi protesters occupy Tahrir in preparation for 30 June – Daily News Egypt". Archived from the original on 2 July 2013. Retrieved 3 July 2013.
- ^ [UPDATE] Morsi supporters rally in Cairo; opponents plan sit-in. UPI (28 June 2013). Retrieved on 2013-08-14.
- ^ Egypt opposition calls for early elections – Middle East. Al Jazeera English. Retrieved on 2013-08-14.
- ^ "Egyptian army issues 48-hour ultimatum". Al-Jazeera English. 1 July 2013. Retrieved 4 February 2016.
- ^ "Special Report: Mursi's downfall". Reuters. 6 July 2013. Retrieved 6 July 2013.
- ^ Hubbard, Ben (6 July 2013). "Mayhem in Cairo as Morsi Backers Fight for Return". The New York Times. Retrieved 6 July 2013.
- ^ "Egypt: Rabaa Killings Likely Crimes against Humanity". Human Rights Watch. 12 August 2014. Archived from the original on 16 August 2014. Retrieved 15 August 2014.
- ^ Mohsen, Manar (16 August 2013). "Health Ministry raises death toll of Wednesday's clashes to 638". Daily News Egypt. Archived from the original on 21 August 2013. Retrieved 19 August 2013.
- ^ "Egypt constitution 'approved by 98.1 percent'". Al Jazeera English. 18 January 2014. Retrieved 18 January 2014.
- ^ Patrick Kingsley. "Egypt's new constitution gets 98% 'yes' vote". The Guardian. Retrieved 25 June 2015.
- ^ "Egypt's El-Sisi bids military farewell, says he will run for presidency". Ahram Online. 26 March 2014. Retrieved 26 March 2014.
- ^ "Former army chief scores landslide victory in Egypt presidential polls". The Guardian. Retrieved 29 May 2014.
- ^ "The different shades of Tahrir – Anger in Egypt". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 9 February 2011. Retrieved 9 February 2011.
- ^ "Egypt Unrest and Protests Continue as Police Return to Cairo Streets". The Washington Post. 31 January 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- ^ Dan Rivers (27 June 2012). "Student journalist assaulted in Tahrir Square". CNN. Archived from the original on 6 August 2012. Retrieved 2 October 2012.
- ^ Melissa Maerz (2 May 2011). "Lara Logan breaks her silence on '60 Minutes': 'They raped me with their hands'". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 2 October 2012.
- ^ "Journalists sexually assaulted in Cairo protests". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 25 November 2011. Retrieved 2 October 2012.
- ^ Noam Cohen (25 November 2011). "Arrests and Attacks on Women Covering Protests in Cairo". The New York Times. Retrieved 2 October 2012.
- ^ Sterling, Joe (4 February 2011). "Across dusty Egypt, anxiety has filled the air". CNN. Archived from the original on 5 February 2011. Retrieved 5 February 2011.
- ^ Mistry, Manisha (31 January 2011). "Mother from St. Albans Speaks to the Review from Egypt". St. Albans Review (part of Newsquest). Retrieved 4 February 2011.
- ^ Tencer, Daniel (14 January 2011). "Reports of 'Massacre' in Suez as Protests in Egypt Move into Third day". The Raw Story. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 28 January 2011.
- ^ Dziadosz, Alexander (27 January 2011). "Could Suez be Egypt's Sidi Bouzid?". Reuters. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
- ^ "TIMELINE-Protests in Egypt | Reuters". Reuters. 3 February 2011. Archived from the original on 26 April 2011. Retrieved 13 April 2011.
- ^ Kirkpatrick, David D. (8 February 2011). "As Egypt Protest Swells, U.S. Sends Specific Demands". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 28 November 2011. Retrieved 10 February 2011.
- ^ a b c Schemm, Paul; Michael, Maggie (5 February 2011). "Mubarak leaves Cairo for Sinai as protests spread". The San Diego Union-Tribune. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 13 February 2011. Retrieved 12 February 2011.
- ^ Ben Wedeman; Amir Ahmed. "3 dead after thousands protest in rare Egypt outpouring". CNN. Retrieved 19 November 2016.
- ^ "Egypt Travel Advice". Fco.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 2 February 2011.
- ^ eljazeera77 (9 February 2011). "مظاهرات مدينه الزقازيق محافظه الشرقيه 28 يناير". YouTube. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
- ^ Kirkpatrick, David D. (8 February 2011). "Protests Swell in Rejection of Egypt"s Limited Reforms". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 24 November 2011. Retrieved 8 February 2011.
- ^ "Sinai Bedouins support the #Jan25 Revolution بدو سيناء يعلنون تأييدهم للثورة المصرية " 3arabawy". Arabawy.org. Archived from the original on 28 March 2011. Retrieved 13 April 2011.
- ^ Stevenson, Rachel (31 January 2011). "Sharm El-Sheikh's Tourists Talking About a Revolution". The Guardian. UK. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- ^ Rosenberg, David (24 January 2011). "Self-Immolation Spreads Across the Mideast, Inspiring Protest, Controversy". The Media Line. Archived from the original on 27 April 2011. Retrieved 25 January 2011.
- ^ مصري يحرق نفسه أمام البرلمان (in Arabic). Al Jazeera. 17 January 2011. Retrieved 25 January 2011.
- ^ Zayed, Dina (18 January 2011). "Egyptians Set Themselves Ablaze After Tunisia Unrest". Reuters. Archived from the original on 19 January 2011. Retrieved 25 January 2011.
- ^ موظف بـ'مصر للطيران' يهدد بحرق نفسه أمام نقابة الصحفيين. El-Aosboa (newspaper) (in Arabic). 18 January 2011. Archived from the original on 21 April 2011. Retrieved 25 January 2011.
- ^ "Mother of Ahmed Hashim al-Sayyed". Reuters (via Yahoo! News). 18 January 2011. Archived from the original on 22 January 2011. Retrieved 2 February 2011.
- ^ Tomasevic, Goran (30 January 2011). "Curfew Hours Extended in Egypt as Turmoil Continues". RIA Novosti. Archived from the original on 2 February 2011. Retrieved 31 January 2011.
- ^ "Update 1-Death Toll in Egypt's Protests Tops 100 – Sources". Reuters. 29 January 2009. Archived from the original on 4 February 2011. Retrieved 5 February 2011.
- ^ Agayev, Zulfugar (30 January 2011). "Azerbaijani Embassy Worker Shot Dead in Egypt, Ministry Says". Bloomberg. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 2 February 2011.
- ^ "Ambassador: Embassy will continue providing necessary help to Azerbaijanis in Egypt". En.trend.az. 31 January 2011. Retrieved 5 February 2011.
- ^ "Prosecutor General's Office Files Lawsuit on Murder of Accountant of Azerbaijani Embassy in Egypt". 31 January 2011.
- ^ Nolan, Dan (29 January 2011). "Hundreds Mourn the Dead in Egypt". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 2 February 2011.
- ^ "Egypt Crisis: Country Braced for 'March of a Million'". The Daily Telegraph. UK. 31 January 2011. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 2 February 2011.
- ^ a b Carol J. Williams (1 February 2011). "Egypt: Rights Advocates Report Protest Death Toll as High as 300". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 2 February 2011.
- ^ "Egypt Unrest Claimed About 300 Lives – UN High Commissioner for Human Rights Navi Pillay". Allvoices.com. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- ^ a b "UN Human Rights Chief: 300 Reported Dead in Egypt Protests". Haaretz. 1 February 2011. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- ^ "Fact-Finding National Commission About 25 Jan Revolution Final Report" (PDF). 19 April 2011. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 April 2011. Retrieved 19 April 2011.
- ^ "Egypt: At least 846 killed in protests". Associated Press. 19 April 2011. Retrieved 19 April 2011.
- ^ "At least 846 killed in Egypt's revolution". Al-Masry Al-Youm. 19 April 2011. Archived from the original on 29 April 2011. Retrieved 19 April 2011.
- ^ a b Senior al-Azhar Sheikh Emad Effat shot dead during Cairo protests Reuters 18 December 2011
- ^ Egypt: The Mayhem, Yasmine El Rashidi, The New York Review of Books
- ^ "Regional Reaction Mixed For Egypt Protests". Eurasia Review. Archived from the original on 22 February 2011. Retrieved 19 February 2011.
- ^ "Travel warning issued, evacuation to start as protests continue in Egypt". English People's Daily Online. 31 January 2011. Retrieved 19 February 2011.
- ^ Ashton, Catherine (29 January 2011). "Factbox: International Reaction to Egyptian Protests". Reuters. Archived from the original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 9 April 2011.
- ^ "Egypt Protests Draw Mixed Reaction in Region". 15 February 2011. Archived from the original on 2 April 2011. Retrieved 9 April 2011.
- ^ "Israel's Big Fears over a Post-Mubarak Egypt". Euronews. 31 January 2011. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 31 January 2011.
- ^ "Israel Urges World To Curb Criticism of Egypt's Mubarak". Haaretz. 31 January 2011. Archived from the original on 31 January 2011. Retrieved 31 January 2011.
- ^ Trimel, Suzanne. "Amnesty International Rebukes Egyptian Leaders for "Failed" Response to Protest Demands Organization Says Leaders' Efforts to Discourage Protests are "Unacceptable"". Archived from the original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 9 April 2011.
- ^ "Foreign governments, businesses begin evacuations from Egypt". CNN. 30 January 2011. Archived from the original on 30 January 2011. Retrieved 30 January 2011.
- ^ Baird-Remba, Rebecca. "Mubarak Steps Down: Reactions From Around the World". Archived from the original on 13 February 2011. Retrieved 9 April 2011.
- ^ Obama, Barack. "Follow Egypt's Example, Obama Tells Mideast". Archived from the original on 3 April 2011. Retrieved 9 April 2011.
- ^ Watt, Nicholas (21 February 2011). "David Cameron visits Egypt". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 7 March 2011. Retrieved 21 February 2011.
- ^ Thomson (15 March 2011). "Hillary Clinton Egypt Trip Marks Highest Level Visit Since Mubarak's Ouster". The Huffington Post. Archived from the original on 17 March 2011. Retrieved 9 April 2011.
- ^ "Protesters Return to Cairo's Main Square – Egyptian President Fires His Cabinet But Refuses To Step Down". NBC News. 29 January 2011. Retrieved 4 February 2011.
- ^ Slackman, Michael (29 January 2011). "Choice of Suleiman Likely to Please the Military, Not the Crowds". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 15 November 2012. Retrieved 3 February 2011.
- ^ Weaver, Matthew; Bowcott, Owen (30 January 2011). "Egypt protests – as they happened". The Guardian. London.
- ^ خالد الصاوي يقود مظاهرة في ميدان التحرير. Elaph (in Arabic). 30 January 2011. Retrieved 30 January 2011.
- ^ الكنيسة بمنأى عن مظاهرات مصر (in Arabic). Al Jazeera. 27 January 2011. Archived from the original on 31 January 2011. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
- ^ "Mubarak Swears in New Cabinet – Egypt's President Appoints New Cabinet in an Attempt To Quell Ongoing Mass Street Protests Against His Rule". Al Jazeera. 31 January 2011. Archived from the original on 31 January 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- ^ "Mubarak Orders State Subsidies – Hosni Mubarak Ordered His New PM To Preserve Subsidies, Control Inflation and Provide More Jobs". Al Jazeera. 31 January 2011. Archived from the original on 31 January 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- ^ El-Ghatrify, Alaa (21 October 2010). "NDP Official: President To Run for 6th Term; Gamal Mubarak Candidacy 'Delusory'". Almasry Alyoum. Archived from the original on 29 June 2011. Retrieved 4 February 2011.
- ^ "Defiant Mubarak Vows To Finish Term – Violence Erupts in Alexandria Shortly After Egyptian President's Announcement That He Will Not Seek Another Term". Al Jazeera. 2 February 2011. Archived from the original on 3 February 2011. Retrieved 4 February 2011.
- ^ "Hosni Mubarak's Speech: Full Text – Egypt President Delivers TV Address to the Nation – and Pledges To Step Down at the Next Election and Pave Way for New Leader". The Guardian. UK. 2 February 2011. Archived from the original on 2 February 2011. Retrieved 2 February 2011.
- ^ "Live: Egypt Unrest". BBC News. 28 January 2011. Archived from the original on 29 January 2011. Retrieved 29 January 2011.
Mubarak must step down. It is time for the military to intervene and save the country
- ^ Memmott, Mark (27 January 2011). "ElBaradei Back in Egypt; Says It's Time for a New Government: The Two-Way". NPR. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 1 February 2011.
- ^ الجيش يدفع بتعزيزات اضافية وطائرات حربية تحلق فوق المتظاهرين في القاهرة (in Arabic). BBC Arabic. 30 January 2011. Archived from the original on 31 January 2011. Retrieved 30 January 2011.
- ^ لجنة وطنية لمفاوضة نظام مبارك (in Arabic). Al Jazeera. 30 January 2011. Archived from the original on 7 February 2011. Retrieved 31 January 2011.
- ^ Cowie, James (27 January 2011). "Egypt Leaves the Internet". Renesys. Archived from the original on 4 February 2011. Retrieved 4 February 2011.
- ^ Richtel, Matt (28 January 2011). "Egypt Cuts Off Most Internet and Cell Service". The New York Times. Retrieved 1 June 2013.
- ^ Webster, Stephen C. (28 January 2011). "Vodafone confirms role in Egypt's cellular, Internet blackout". The Raw Story. Retrieved 1 June 2013.
- ^ Singel, Ryan (28 January 2011). "Egypt Shut Down Its Net With a Series of Phone Calls". Wired. Retrieved 1 June 2013.
- ^ Goodman, Amy (1 February 2011). "Digital Darkness: U.S., U.K. Companies Help Egyptian Regime Shut Down Telecommunications and Identify Dissident Voices". Democracy Now!. Archived from the original on 17 May 2013. Retrieved 1 June 2013.
- ^ "Egypt: A List of Demands from Tahrir Square". Global Voices. 10 February 2011.
- ^ "Basic minimum wage jumps from EGP 250 to EGP 870", Daily News Egypt.
- ^ "Egypt state of emergency lifted after 31 years". BBC News. 31 May 2012.
- ^ Egypt dissolves notorious internal security agency, BBC News, 31 May 2012
- ^ Patrick Kingsley (29 July 2013). "Egypt restores feared secret police units". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 30 July 2013.
- ^ "Egypt's Suleiman says will not run for president". Reuters Africa. 3 February 2011.
- ^ "Egypt's military council lifts nightly curfew". Al Jazeera News. 15 June 2011.
- ^ Abigail Hauslohner (29 February 2012). "The Most Powerful Weapon of Egypt's Ruling Generals: State TV". Time.
- ^ "Mubarak sentenced to jail for life over protest deaths". BBC News. 2 June 2012.
- ^ "Brotherhood's Mursi sworn in as Egyptian president". BBC News. 30 June 2012.
- ^ a b "Egypt detains ex-ministers". Al Jazeera. 17 February 2011. Archived from the original on 18 February 2011. Retrieved 18 February 2011.
- ^ "Egypt recognizes moderate Islamic party, promises to release political prisoners". The Globe and Mail. Toronto. 19 February 2011. Archived from the original on 22 February 2011. Retrieved 20 February 2011.
- ^ "Muslim Brotherhood to establish 'Freedom and Justice Party'". Al-Masry Al-Youm. Archived from the original on 14 March 2011.
- ^ "The Muslim Brotherhood Official English Website". Ikhwanweb. 23 February 2011. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- ^ Gordon, Evelyn (23 February 2011). "Muslim Brotherhood sits at Egypt's new democratic table". The Jerusalem Post. Archived from the original on 24 February 2011. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- ^ "Muslim Brothers see corruption-free Egypt flourishing". Al Arabiya. 23 February 2011. Archived from the original on 7 March 2011. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- ^ "Egypt's Prime Minister Ahmed Shafiq resigns". BBC News. 3 March 2011. Archived from the original on 3 March 2011. Retrieved 3 March 2011.
- ^ "Egypte: le Premier ministre remplacé, satisfaction des opposants" (in French). Euronews. 3 March 2011. Archived from the original on 7 March 2011. Retrieved 3 March 2011.
- ^ "Meet Essam Sharaf: Egypt's first post-revolution Prime Minister". Ahram Online. 3 March 2011. Retrieved 3 March 2011.
- ^ "Egypt's Elaraby accepts foreign minister post". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
- ^ "Egypt PM appoints new key ministers". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 7 March 2011. Retrieved 7 March 2011.
- ^ "Egypt dissolves former ruling party". 16 April 2011. Archived from the original on 19 April 2011. Retrieved 16 April 2011.
- ^ "Egypt: Hosni Mubarak and sons to be tried over deaths and should be killed for their crimes". BBC News. 24 May 2011. Archived from the original on 25 May 2011. Retrieved 24 May 2011.
- ^ "How the mighty have fallen". Al-Ahram Weekly. 2 February 2011. Archived from the original on 1 May 2011. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
- ^ Inman, Phillip (4 February 2011). "Mubarak family fortune could reach $70bn, say experts". The Guardian. UK. Archived from the original on 14 March 2011. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
- ^ "مصطفى الفقى: شخصية كبيرة فى الرئاسة أكدت لى أن "مبارك" لن يترشح وابنه سيكون البديل" [Mustafa Fiki: a big figure in the presidency confirmed that 'Mubarak' will not run, his son would be the alternative] (in Arabic). Almasry-alyoum.com. Archived from the original on 25 April 2011. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
- ^ "Egypt Issues Travel Ban, Asset Freeze on Mubarak". Voice of America. 28 February 2011. Archived from the original on 2 March 2011. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
- ^ "NDP fires Mubarak – then what?". Ahram Online. 28 February 2011. Archived from the original on 30 April 2011. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
- ^ "الشريف ينفي امتلاكه حسابات خاصة خارج مصر". Masrawy.com. 6 March 2011. Archived from the original on 14 March 2011. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
- ^ "Hussein Salem caught in Dubai with $500m". Globes. 31 January 2011. Archived from the original on 31 January 2011. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
- ^ "5 مارس.. بدء محاكمة العادلي أمام الجنايات". Masrawy.com. 27 February 2011. Archived from the original on 14 March 2011. Retrieved 16 March 2011.
- ^ Atkins, Stephen E. (31 May 2011). The 9/11 Encyclopædia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 456–. ISBN 978-1-59884-921-9. Retrieved 6 May 2011.
- ^ "Secularism is what the Arab world needs – Blog Post". Palestinenote.com. 28 February 2011. Archived from the original on 7 March 2011. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- ^ "An upside of Arab revolts: Islamists talk democracy". The Christian Science Monitor. Archived from the original on 5 March 2011. Retrieved 5 March 2011.
- ^ Glick, Caroline. "Our World: Clueless in Washington". The Jerusalem Post. Archived from the original on 27 April 2011. Retrieved 10 April 2011.
- ^ a b "Saving the Egyptian Revolution". Project Syndicate. 3 March 2011. Archived from the original on 30 April 2011. Retrieved 6 March 2011.
- ^ MacFarquhar, Neil (20 March 2011). "Egyptian Voters Approve Constitutional Changes". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 28 November 2011. Retrieved 10 April 2011.
- ^ Bradley, Matt (3 February 2011). "Egypt's Muslim Brotherhood to Rejoin Protests". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 9 April 2011. Retrieved 13 April 2011.
- ^ Gratowski, J. Thomas (17 February 2014). "Is Egypt Breaking Apart?". International Affairs Review. Archived from the original on 22 February 2014. Retrieved 18 February 2014.
- ^ "Egypt Church Blast Death Toll Rises to 23". Reuters. 4 January 2011. Retrieved 4 February 2011.
- ^ "Egypt bomb kills 21 at Alexandria Coptic church". BBC News. 1 January 2011. Retrieved 19 November 2016.
- ^ Fahim, Kareem; Stack, Liam (1 January 2011). "Coptic Church in Egypt Is Hit by Fatal Bomb Attack". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 19 November 2016.
- ^ Slackman, Michael (4 January 2011). "Clashes Grow as Egyptians Remain Angry After an Attack". The New York Times.
- ^ "Egypt Media Warn of Civil War after Bombing". Agence France-Presse. 2 January 2011. Archived from the original on 4 March 2011. Retrieved 28 January 2011.
- ^ Stack, Liam; Kirkpatrick, David D. (2 January 2011). "Egypt Orders Tighter Security After Church Bombing". The New York Times. Retrieved 28 January 2011.
- ^ Jouini, Hassen (8 January 2011). "Muslims Protect Churches". National Post. Canada. Archived from the original on 22 January 2011. Retrieved 28 January 2011.
- ^ Interview. "Vivian Ibrahim of the School of Oriental and African Studies at the University of London". BBC News 3 February 2011; 12:55 UTC.
- ^ Heba Helmy (8 February 2011). "Tuesday's papers: Funeral for martyr journalist, Ghoneim release, al-Adli under investigation". Al Masry Al Youm. Archived from the original on 22 February 2011.
- ^ Fatma Naib (19 February 2011). "Women of the revolution – Features". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 15 April 2011. Retrieved 13 April 2011.
- ^ a b Niklas Albin Svensson. "The key role of women in the Egyptian revolution". In Defence of Marxism. Retrieved 25 June 2015.
- ^ a b Wolf, Naomi (28 February 2011). "The Middle East's Feminist Revolution". Project Syndicate. Retrieved 1 March 2011.
- ^ "NASA rocket to bear name of Egyptian woman killed in protests". NDTV. 12 February 2011. Archived from the original on 7 March 2011. Retrieved 6 March 2011.
- ^ "Key members of Egypt Armed Forces Supreme Council". Apnews.myway.com. Retrieved 13 February 2011.
- ^ Black, Ian (30 January 2011). "All Eyes on Egypt's Military as Hosni Mubarak Fortifies Position". The Guardian. UK. Archived from the original on 31 January 2011. Retrieved 31 January 2011.
- ^ "Factbox – Egypt's Powerful Military". Reuters. 30 January 2011. Archived from the original on 1 February 2011. Retrieved 31 January 2011.
- ^ Kotb, Amrou (31 October 2013). "In Egypt, Inclusive Democracy is no Longer just a Suggestion". Masr or Egypt. Retrieved 6 December 2013.
- ^ Borger, Julian; Ball, James (14 February 2011). "WikiLeaks cables: Egyptian military head is 'old and resistant to change'". The Guardian. UK. Archived from the original on 7 March 2011. Retrieved 6 March 2011.
- ^ Chatterjee, Pratap (4 February 2011). "Egypt's military-industrial complex". The Guardian. UK. Archived from the original on 7 March 2011. Retrieved 6 March 2011.
- ^ "Egypt: Admission of forced 'virginity tests' must lead to justice – Amnesty International". Amnesty International. 31 May 2011.
- ^ "Video: Tahrir Square Egypt Army Attack Protesters 8/9 April 2011 (Youtube)". Newsblogged.com. 9 April 2011. Archived from the original on 22 November 2012. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
- ^ The "Maspero Crime": Accounts Against the Counter-Revolution Archived 9 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Jadaliyya
- ^ Chulov, Martin; Shenker, Jack (25 November 2011). "Egypt's generals defy Tahrir protests over elections". The Guardian. London.
- ^ "Tahrir Square rally denounces violence against protesters". The Guardian. London. 23 December 2011.
- ^ Manshy007 (19 December 2011). "SCAF Crimes – جرائم العسكر". Scaf-crimes.blogspot.com. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
- ^ "Background Note: Egypt". United States Department of State. 10 November 2010. Retrieved 22 September 2013.
- ^ Cole, Juan (30 January 2011). "Why Egypt's Class Conflict Is Boiling Over – Juan Cole: How Decades of Economic Stumbles Set the Stage for Egypt's Current Political Turmoil". CBS News. Retrieved 4 February 2011.
- ^ "Mubarak under pressure". The Guardian. UK. 25 January 2008. Archived from the original on 7 February 2011. Retrieved 6 February 2011.
- ^ "Revolution, Facebook-style". The New York Times Magazine. Retrieved 22 June 2014.
- ^ "6 April Youth Movement – حركة شباب 6 إبريل". Facebook. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
- ^ "Who is Wael Ghonim?". CBC News. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. 8 February 2011. Retrieved 17 February 2011.
- ^ "تقرير خاص- من داخل الثورة المصرية" (transcript). Reuters. 13 April 2011. Retrieved 6 February 2011.
- ^ "Women play vital role in Egypt's uprising" (transcript). NPR. 4 February 2011. Archived from the original on 5 February 2011. Retrieved 6 February 2011.
- ^ "Can Egypt's Internet Movement Be Exported?". The Nation. 18 February 2011. Archived from the original on 22 February 2011. Retrieved 23 February 2011.
- ^ "Social media, cellphone video fuel Arab protests". The Independent. UK. 27 February 2011. Archived from the original on 1 March 2011. Retrieved 6 March 2011.
- ^ "The Realist Prism: Politics vs. Social Media in the Arab Uprising". World Politics Review. 25 January 2011. Retrieved 6 March 2011.
- ^ "History of the Revolution on Facebook". Daily Kos. 17 February 2011. Archived from the original on 18 May 2011. Retrieved 29 May 2011.
- ^ "Mubarak Shut Down The Internet, And The Internet Paid Him in Kind". TechCrunch. 11 February 2011. Archived from the original on 15 May 2011. Retrieved 26 June 2011.
- ^ "The Arab Uprising's Cascading Effects". Miller-McCune. 23 February 2011. Archived from the original on 1 March 2011. Retrieved 6 March 2011.
- ^ "Craig Labovitz's Blog". Monkey.org. Archived from the original on 8 March 2011. Retrieved 6 March 2011.
- ^ Ali, Amir. "The Power of Social Media in Developing Nations: New Tools for Closing the Global Digital Divide and Beyond" (PDF). Harvard Human Rights Journal. 24 (1): 185–189, 208–210. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 November 2012. Retrieved 17 July 2011.
- ^ "Sharif Abdel Kouddous Transitions from Democracy Now! Senior Producer to Middle East Correspondent". Democracy Now. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
- ^ "Sharif Abdel Kouddous". Pulitzer Center. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
- ^ "Previous Debate". DubaiDebates.com. 22 February 2011. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
- ^ Ali, Amir. "The Power of Social Media in Developing Nations: New Tools for Closing the Global Digital Divide and Beyond" (PDF). Harvard Human Rights Journal. 24 (1): 205–208. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 November 2012. Retrieved 17 July 2011.
- ^ Africa Internet Usage, Facebook and Population Statistics. Internetworldstats.com. Retrieved on 2013-12-06.
- ^ "A Look at Twitter in Iran « Sysomos Blog". Blog.sysomos.com. 21 June 2009. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
- ^ Weaver, Matthew (9 June 2010). "Iran's 'Twitter revolution' was exaggerated, says editor". The Guardian. London.
- ^ Fassihi, Farnaz (3 December 2009). "Iranian Crackdown Goes Global". The Wall Street Journal.
- ^ "Businessweek – Business News, Stock market & Financial Advice". Businessweek.com. Archived from the original on 14 September 2011.
- ^ "Tunisia: Can We Please Stop Talking About 'Twitter Revolutions'?". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
- ^ Rebekah Heacock (15 April 2011). "Egypt: Gene Sharp Taught Us How To Revolt!". Global Voices. Retrieved 17 November 2012.
- ^ Madrigal, Alexis C. "Egyptian Activists' Action Plan: Translated". The Atlantic. Retrieved 15 June 2014.
- ^ Hearns-Branaman, Jesse Owen (2012), 'The Egyptian Revolution did not take place: On live television coverage by Al Jazeera English', International Journal of Baudrillard Studies Vol 9, no 1 "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 21 March 2015. Retrieved 17 May 2015.CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
- ^ a b Eltantawy, Nahed; Wiest, Julie B. (2 September 2011). "The Arab Spring| Social Media in the Egyptian Revolution: Reconsidering Resource Mobilization Theory". International Journal of Communication. 5: 18. ISSN 1932-8036.
- ^ Panisson, André. "The Egyptian Revolution on Twitter". Archived from the original on 25 December 2011. Retrieved 26 December 2011.
- ^ 'Ford, Heather. "Infoboxes and cleanup tags: Artifacts of Wikipedia newsmaking". Journalism (2014): 1464884914545739.
- ^ a b Hassanpour, Navid (2014). "Media Disruption and Revolutionary Unrest:Evidence From Mubarak's Quasi-Experiment". Political Communication. 31: 1–24. doi:10.1080/10584609.2012.737439. S2CID 143328555.
- ^ Hassanpour, Navid (2014). "Media Disruption and Revolutionary Unrest: Evidence From Mubarak's Quasi-Experiment". Political Communication. 31: 5–6. doi:10.1080/10584609.2012.737439. S2CID 143328555.
- ^ Smith, Amelia. "Revolution Graffiti: Street Art of the new Egypt". Middle East Monitor. Archived from the original on 12 April 2013. Retrieved 15 April 2013.
- ^ Abaza, Mona (9 October 2012). "Walls, Segregating Downtown Cairo and the Mohammed Mahmud Street Graffiti". Theory, Culture & Society. 30 (1).
- ^ Parshley, Lois. "For Egypt's Graffiti Artists Revolution Brings Inspiration and Uncertainty". The Atlantic. Retrieved 15 April 2013.
- ^ Kholeif, Omar. "The Social Impulse: Politics, Meida and Art After the Arab Uprisings". Art & Education. Archived from the original on 3 April 2013. Retrieved 15 April 2013.
Otras lecturas
- Bradley, John R. (2008). Inside Egypt: The Land of the Pharaohs on the Brink of a Revolution. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-8477-7.
- El-Mahdi, Rabab; Marfleet, Philip, eds. (2009). Egypt: The Moment of Change. London: Zed. ISBN 978-1-84813-021-0.
- Faris, David (2010). Revolutions Without Revolutionaries? Social Media Networks and Regime Response in Egypt. Publicly accessible Penn Dissertations. Paper 116.
- Maurushat, Alana, Chawki, Mohammed, Al-Alosi, Hadeel, and el Shazly, Yassin (2014), "The Impact of Social Networks and Mobile Technologies on the Revolutions in the Arab World—A Study of Egypt and Tunisia", MDPI
- Radsch, Courtney C. (2008). "Core to Commonplace: The Evolution of Egypt's Blogosphere". Arab Media and Society. American University of Cairo (6, Fall).
- Rutherford, Bruce K. (2008). Egypt after Mubarak: Liberalism, Islam, and Democracy in the Arab World. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-13665-3.
- Albrecht, Holger (2014). "The Myth of Coup-proofing Risk and Instances of Military Coups d’état in the Middle East and North Africa, 1950–2013" Armed Forces & Society Available Online
General
- Egypt Resources from Google Crisis Response
- Egyptian revolution of 2011 at the Best of the Web Directory
- Media library documenting Egypt's 25 Jan revolution with thousands of videos & photos
- Digital Library includes photos, videos, visual art, and oral histories contributed by student activists, academics, security officers, and demonstrators in and around Cairo.
- Web Archive includes archived versions of blogs, Twitter feeds, local and regional media coverage, and other sites related to the 25 January Revolution.
- Middle East and North Africa in turmoil – Tracking the Protests. Chart provided by The Washington Post to keep up day by day with all of the anti-government protests which as off May 2011 are spreading rapidly through the Middle East and North Africa.
- Timeline: Transition in Egypt. Key events leading up to the first presidential election since the ouster of President Hosni Mubarak and subsequent developments as provided by The Washington Post
- Egypt Elections: Key Events Timeline In Egyptian Uprising And Transition as provided by Agence France-Presse
- Egypt's revolution: Interactive map as provided by BBC News Middle East
- Vox Populi: ongoing project by Lara Baladi which includes a series of media initiatives, art projects, publications and a portal into web based archives
Live coverage
- "Egypt's new era". BBC News. UK. 26 March 2011.
- "Egypt protests live". The Guardian. UK. 1 February 2011.
- "Egyptian Revolution – One Year On". Thomson Reuters Foundation. UK. 25 January 2012.
- "Unrest in Egypt". Reuters. UK.
- Egypt Real Time Video Stream at Frequency
Crowdsourcing
- "Egypt's Revolution". Qatar: Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 29 January 2011.
- Emergency Law and Police Brutality in Egypt Archived 30 January 2011 at the Wayback Machine at CrowdVoice
- Citizen Media coverage on Egypt Protests by Global Voices Online
- Testimonials From Egyptians at The Real News
- "Egyptian elections". UK: Thomson Reuters Foundation.
- "University on the Square: Documenting Egypt's 21st Century Revolution". Egypt: American University in Cairo. Archived from the original on 26 November 2012.
Interviews
- Interview with Wael Ghonim, Google mideast manager: Guardian via Dream TV, subtitled; Full translation
- "Egypt's 21st Century Revolution Oral Histories". Egypt: American University in Cairo. Archived from the original on 1 July 2012.
Documentaries
- Egypt: A Nation in Waiting (Al Jazeera documentary focusing on past trends in Egypt's political history and the events which led to the revolution.)
- Revolution in Cairo (PBS Frontline documentary about the role of the 6 April youth movement, cyberactivism and the Muslim Brotherhood in the revolution)
- How to Start a Revolution (A multi-award winning British documentary on nonviolent action and the Arab Spring focusing on Gene Sharp.) Archived 10 February 2012 at the Wayback Machine
- Uprising (2012 film)
- The Square (2013 film)
- Tickling Giants
Analysis and criticism
- Norman Finkelstein: An important analysis of the Egyptian revolution and counter-revolution.
- "Isqat Al-Nizam". Egypt: American University in Cairo.
- "Egyptian and Arab Revolution Scholarly Works". Egypt: American University in Cairo.
- Demonstrations in Tahrir Square: Two Years Later, What has Changed?: Hearing before the Subcommittee on the Middle East and North Africa of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, House of Representatives, One Hundred Thirteenth Congress, First Session, 26 February 2013
enlaces externos
- "Tahrir Documents". University of California, Los Angeles.
Collected from demonstrations in Cairo's Tahrir Square
2011–present
