El rey de Babilonia ( acadio : šar Bābili ) fue el gobernante de la antigua ciudad mesopotámica de Babilonia y su reino, Babilonia , que existió como un reino independiente desde el siglo XIX a. C. hasta su caída en el siglo VI a. C. Durante la mayor parte de su existencia como reino independiente, Babilonia gobernó la mayor parte del sur de Mesopotamia, compuesta por las antiguas regiones de Sumer y Akkad . La ciudad experimentó dos períodos importantes de ascendencia, cuando los reyes babilónicos se alzaron para dominar gran parte del Antiguo Cercano Oriente : el Primer Imperio Babilónico.(o Antiguo Imperio Babilónico, 1894-1595 aC según la cronología media ) y el Segundo Imperio Babilónico (o Imperio Neobabilónico, 626-539 aC).
Rey de babilonia | |
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šar Bābili | |
Detalles | |
Primer monarca | Sumu-abum |
Último monarca |
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Formación | C. 1894 a. C. |
Abolición |
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Nombrador | El derecho divino y el sacerdocio babilónico |
El título šar Bābili se aplicó a los gobernantes babilónicos relativamente tarde, desde el siglo VIII a. C. en adelante. Los reyes babilonios precedentes solían utilizar el título de virrey de Babilonia (acadio: šakkanakki Bābili ) por reverencia a la deidad patrona de Babilonia, Marduk , considerado el "rey" formal de la ciudad. Otros títulos utilizados con frecuencia por los monarcas babilónicos incluían los títulos geográficos rey de Sumer y Akkad (acadio: šar māt Šumeri u Akkadi ) y rey de Karduniash (acadio: šar Karduniaš ), siendo "Karduniash" el nombre que la ciudad aplicaba al reino de Babilonia. tercera dinastía (los casitas ).
Muchos de los reyes de Babilonia eran de origen extranjero. A lo largo de los casi dos mil años de historia de la ciudad, fue gobernada por reyes de origen nativo babilónico, amorreo , kasita , asirio , elamita , caldeo , persa , helénico y parto . El trasfondo cultural y étnico de un rey no parece haber sido importante para la percepción babilónica de la realeza, lo importante en cambio es si el rey era capaz de ejecutar los deberes tradicionalmente atribuidos al rey babilónico; establecer la paz y la seguridad, defender la justicia, honrar los derechos civiles, abstenerse de impuestos ilegales, respetar las tradiciones religiosas, construir templos y proporcionar regalos a los dioses en ellos, así como mantener el orden del culto. Las revueltas de independencia babilónicas dirigidas contra los gobernantes asirios y persas probablemente tuvieron poco que ver con que dichos gobernantes no fueran babilonios y más con que los gobernantes rara vez visitaban Babilonia y no participaban en los rituales y tradiciones de la ciudad.
El último rey nativo de Babilonia fue Nabonido , que reinó del 556 al 539 a. C. El gobierno de Nabonido terminó cuando Babilonia fue conquistada por Ciro el Grande del Imperio Aqueménida . Aunque los primeros reyes aqueménidas continuaron dando importancia a Babilonia y continuaron usando el título de "rey de Babilonia", a los gobernantes aqueménidas posteriores se les atribuyó el título probablemente solo algo hecho por los mismos babilonios, y los reyes lo habían abandonado. Aunque es dudoso que algún monarca posterior reclamara el título, los escribas babilónicos continuaron otorgándolo a los gobernantes de los imperios que controlaban Babilonia hasta la época del Imperio parto , cuando Babilonia fue abandonada gradualmente. Aunque Babilonia nunca recuperó la independencia después de la conquista aqueménida, hubo varios intentos de los babilonios de expulsar a sus gobernantes extranjeros y restablecer su reino, posiblemente hasta el 336 a. C. bajo el rebelde Nidin-Bel .
Títulos
A lo largo de la larga historia de la ciudad, se utilizaron varios títulos para designar al gobernante de Babilonia y su reino, los más comunes [1] de los cuales eran " virrey / gobernador de Babilonia" ( šakkanakki Bābili ), [2] "rey de Karduniash " ( šar Karduniaš ) [3] y " rey de Sumer y Akkad " ( šar māt Šumeri u Akkadi ). [4] "virrey / gobernador de Babilonia" enfatiza el dominio político de la ciudad, mientras que los otros dos se refieren al sur de Mesopotamia en su conjunto. [1] El uso de uno de los títulos no significa que los otros no puedan usarse simultáneamente. Por ejemplo, el rey neoasirio Tiglat-Pileser III , que conquistó Babilonia en el 729 a. C., utilizó los tres. [5]
La razón por la que se usó "gobernador / virrey de Babilonia" en lugar de "rey de Babilonia" ( šar Bābili ) [6] durante gran parte de la historia de la ciudad fue que se consideraba formalmente al verdadero rey de Babilonia como su deidad nacional, Marduk . Al ser titulado šakkanakki en lugar de šar , el rey babilónico mostró reverencia al dios de la ciudad. Esta práctica fue terminada por el rey neoasirio Senaquerib , quien en 705 aC tomó el título de šar Bābili en lugar de šakkanakki Bābili , algo que junto con varias otras ofensas percibidas contribuyó a la recepción negativa generalizada del rey en Babilonia. [7] Los sucesores inmediatos de Senaquerib, incluido su hijo Esarhaddon ( r . 681-669 aC) solían usar šakkanakki Bābili , [8] aunque hay ejemplos de Esarhaddon y el sucesor de Esarhaddon Shamash-shum-ukin ( r . 668-648 aC) usando šar Bābili también. [9]
"Rey de Babilonia" se usó entonces para todos los reyes siguientes indistintamente con "gobernador / virrey de Babilonia". Fue utilizado por los reyes neobabilónicos, [10] y por los primeros gobernantes persas aqueménidas. [6] Los aqueménidas usaron el título de rey de Babilonia y rey de las Tierras hasta que Jerjes I lo abandonó gradualmente en el 481 a. C. después de que tuvo que lidiar con numerosas revueltas babilónicas. [11] El último rey aqueménida cuyas inscripciones usan este título fue Artajerjes I , el sucesor de Jerjes I. [12] Los monarcas posteriores probablemente rara vez (si es que lo usaron) usaron el título, pero los gobernantes de Mesopotamia continuaron otorgándolo durante siglos. por los propios babilonios, tan tarde como el período parto . Los reyes partos fueron diseñados en inscripciones como LUGAL (la inscripción de šar ). [13] La fórmula estándar de los partos, aplicada a los últimos reyes mencionados en fuentes en idioma acadio, era " ar-šá-kam lugal.lugal.meš" ( Aršákam šar šarrāni , "Arsaces, rey de reyes "). [14] Los documentos babilónicos finales que mencionan y nombran a un rey son los diarios astronómicos LBAT 1184 y LBAT 1193, [14] escritos durante el reinado del rey parto Fraates IV ( r . 37-2 a . C.), fechados en el 11 a. C. y 5 aC, respectivamente. [15]
El título de "rey de Sumer y Akkad " se introdujo durante la Tercera Dinastía de Ur , siglos antes de que se fundara Babilonia, y permitió a los gobernantes conectarse con la cultura y el legado de las civilizaciones sumeria y acadia, [16] así como la reivindicación laica. sobre la hegemonía política lograda durante el antiguo Imperio acadio . Además, el título era geográfico en el sentido de que el sur de Mesopotamia se dividía típicamente en regiones llamadas Sumer (las regiones del sur) y Akkad (el norte), lo que significa que "rey de Sumer y Akkad" se refería al gobierno de todo el país. [17] Junto al "rey de Babilonia", los monarcas babilónicos utilizaron "rey de Sumer y Acad" hasta la caída del Imperio Neobabilónico en el 539 a. C. [4] El título también fue utilizado por Ciro el Grande , que conquistó Babilonia en 539 a. C. [18] [19] [20]
El "rey de Karduniash" se introdujo durante la tercera dinastía de Babilonia, cuando la ciudad y el sur de Mesopotamia en su conjunto estaban gobernados por los casitas . Karduniaš era el nombre kasita del reino centrado en Babilonia y su territorio. [17] El título continuó usándose mucho después de que los casitas perdieran el control de Babilonia, usado por ejemplo tan tarde como por el rey nativo de Babilonia Nabu-shuma-ukin I ( r . C. 900-888 aC) [21] y por Esarhaddon. [8]
Rol y legitimidad
Los reyes babilónicos derivaron su derecho a gobernar del nombramiento divino de la deidad patrona de Babilonia, Marduk, y mediante la consagración de los sacerdotes de la ciudad. [22] La imagen de culto principal de Marduk (a menudo combinada con el dios mismo), la Estatua de Marduk , se usó de manera prominente en los rituales de coronación de los reyes, quienes recibieron sus coronas "de las manos" de Marduk durante el festival de Año Nuevo . simbolizando que la deidad les otorgó la realeza. [11] El gobierno del rey y su papel como vasallo de Marduk en la Tierra se reafirmaban anualmente en esta época del año, cuando el rey entraba solo en Esagila el quinto día de la Fiesta de Año Nuevo de cada año y se reunía con el sumo sacerdote. El sumo sacerdote quitó las insignias del rey, lo abofeteó y lo hizo arrodillarse ante la estatua de Marduk. El rey entonces le diría a la estatua que no había oprimido a su pueblo y que había mantenido el orden durante todo el año, después de lo cual el sumo sacerdote respondería (en nombre de Marduk) que el rey podría continuar disfrutando del apoyo divino para su gobierno, regresando las insignias reales. [23] Al ser un patrón de los templos de Babilonia, el rey extendió su generosidad hacia los dioses mesopotámicos, quienes a su vez fortalecieron su gobierno y le prestaron su autoridad. [22]
Se esperaba que los reyes babilónicos establecieran la paz y la seguridad, defendieran la justicia, honraran los derechos civiles, se abstuvieran de imponer impuestos ilegales, respetaran las tradiciones religiosas y mantuvieran el orden de los cultos. Ninguna de las responsabilidades y deberes del rey exigía que fuera étnica o incluso culturalmente babilónico; cualquier extranjero suficientemente familiarizado con las costumbres reales de Babilonia podría adoptar el título, [22] aunque entonces podría requerir la ayuda del sacerdocio nativo y de los escribas nativos. La etnia y la cultura no parecen haber sido importantes en la percepción babilónica de la realeza; muchos reyes extranjeros contaron con el apoyo de los babilonios y varios reyes nativos fueron despreciados. [24] El hecho de que los babilonios no apoyaran el gobierno de algunos reyes extranjeros probablemente tiene poco que ver con su origen étnico o cultural. [25] Lo que siempre fue más importante fue si el gobernante era capaz de ejecutar correctamente los deberes del rey babilónico, de acuerdo con la tradición babilónica establecida. [26] Las frecuentes revueltas babilónicas contra gobernantes extranjeros, como los asirios y los persas, pueden atribuirse muy probablemente a que los reyes asirios y persas fueron percibidos como fracasados en sus deberes como monarcas babilónicos. Dado que sus capitales estaban en otros lugares, no participaban regularmente en los rituales de la ciudad (lo que significa que no podían celebrarse de la misma manera que tradicionalmente) y rara vez realizaban sus deberes tradicionales para con los cultos babilónicos mediante la construcción de templos y la presentación de obsequios de culto. a los dioses de la ciudad. Este fracaso podría haber sido interpretado como que los reyes no tenían el respaldo divino necesario para ser considerados verdaderos reyes de Babilonia. [27]
Dinastías babilónicas
Arreglos dinásticos
Al igual que con otras monarquías, los reyes de Babilonia se agrupan en una serie de dinastías reales, una práctica iniciada por los mismos antiguos babilonios en sus listas de reyes. [28] [29] Las dinastías babilónicas generalmente aceptadas no deben entenderse como agrupaciones familiares en la misma línea que el término es comúnmente utilizado por los historiadores para las familias gobernantes en reinos e imperios posteriores. Aunque la primera dinastía de Babilonia formó un grupo dinástico en el que todos los monarcas estaban emparentados, las dinastías del primer milenio antes de Cristo, en particular la dinastía de E, no constituyeron una serie de relaciones familiares coherentes en absoluto. En un sentido babilónico, el término dinastía, traducido como palû o palê , se relaciona con una secuencia de monarcas del mismo grupo étnico o tribal (es decir, la dinastía Kassite), la misma región (es decir, las dinastías de Sealand) o la misma ciudad. (es decir, las dinastías de Babilonia e Isin). [29] En algunos casos, los reyes conocidos por estar relacionados genealógicamente, como Eriba-Marduk y su nieto Marduk-apla-iddina II , fueron separados en diferentes dinastías, la primera designada como perteneciente a la dinastía E y la última como perteneciente a la (Tercera) dinastía Sealand. [30]
Historiadores posteriores han proporcionado diversos arreglos dinásticos de los reyes. La lista de reyes a continuación sigue el arreglo dinástico de los reyes presentado en Beaulieu (2018), [31] con algunos de los nombres de las dinastías y las fechas de reinado de los reyes siguiendo a Chen (2020). [32] Beaulieu (2018) basó la disposición de las dinastías en la Lista de reyes de Babilonia A. La "Novena Dinastía" de Beaulieu agrupa a los reyes de lo que los babilonios consideraban una serie de dinastías breves juntas porque estas dinastías no están separadas tan claramente en la lista de reyes como otros, con atribuciones dinásticas enumeradas después de cada rey individualmente en lugar de después de la secuencia completa, como en las dinastías anteriores. [33] Otras interpretaciones recientes de las dinastías babilónicas, así como la versión utilizada en la antigua Lista de reyes babilónicos A, se presentan en la siguiente tabla, con el primer y último reyes atribuidos a cada dinastía.
Lista de reyes de Babilonia A [28] [34] | Leick (2010) [35] | Van De Mieroop (2016) [36] | Beaulieu (2018) [31] | Chen (2020) [32] |
---|---|---|---|---|
palê Babili ("Dinastía de Babilonia") Sumu-abum - Samsu-Ditana | Primera dinastía de Babilonia c. 1894-1595 a. C. Sumu-abum - Samsu-Ditana | Primera dinastía de Babilonia 1880-1595 a. C. Sumu-abum - Samsu-Ditana | I. Primera dinastía de Babilonia 1880-1595 a. C. Sumu-abum - Samsu-Ditana | Dinastía amorrea 1894-1595 a. C. Sumu-abum - Samsu-Ditana |
palê Urukug ("Dinastía de Urukug") Ilum-ma-ili - Itti-ili-nibi | Primera dinastía Sealand omitida de la lista de gobernantes | La primera dinastía Sealand y los primeros reyes kasitas se omiten de la lista de gobernantes | II. Primera dinastía de los Sealand 1732-1475 a. C. Ilum-ma-ili - Itti-ili-nibi | Primera dinastía Sealand Fechas inciertas Ilum-ma-ili - Itti-ili-nibi |
palê Kasshi ("Dinastía de los casitas") Gandash - Enlil-nadin-ahhe | Dinastía kasita c. 1729-1155 aC Gandash - Enlil-nadin-ahhe | Dinastía kasita 1374-1155 a. C. Kadashman-Enlil I - Enlil-nadin-ahhe | III. Dinastía kasita 1594-1155 a. C. Gandash / Agum II - Enlil-nadin-ahhe | ¿Dinastía kasita ? –1155 a. C. Gandash / Hurbazum - Enlil-nadin-ahhe |
palê Ishin ("Dinastía de Isin") (?) Marduk-kabit-ahheshu - Nabu-shum-libur | Segunda dinastía de Isin c. 1155-1027 aC Marduk-kabit-ahheshu - Nabu-shum-libur | Segunda dinastía de Isin 1157-1026 a. C. Marduk-kabit-ahheshu - Nabu-shum-libur | IV. Segunda dinastía de Isin 1153-1022 a. C. Marduk-kabit-ahheshu - Nabu-shum-libur | Segunda dinastía de Isin 1157-1026 a. C. Marduk-kabit-ahheshu - Nabu-shum-libur |
palê Tamti ("Dinastía de Sealand") Simpar-Shipak - Kashshu-nadin-ahi | Segunda dinastía Sealand c. 1026–1006 a. C. Simpar-Shipak - Kashshu-nadin-ahi | Segunda dinastía Sealand 1025-1005 a. C. Simpar-Shipak - Kashshu-nadin-ahi | V. Segunda dinastía de Sealand 1025-1005 a. C. Simpar-Shipak - Kashshu-nadin-ahi | Segunda dinastía Sealand 1025-1005 a. C. Simpar-Shipak - Kashshu-nadin-ahi |
palê Bīt-Bazi ("Dinastía de Bit-Bazi") Eulmash-shakin-shumi - Shirikti-shuqamuna | Dinastía Bazi c. 1005–980 a. C. Eulmash-shakin-shumi - Mar-biti-apla-usur | Dinastía Bazi 1004–985 a. C. Eulmash-shakin-shumi - Shirikti-shuqamuna | VI. Dinastía de Bazi 1004–985 a. C. Eulmash-shakin-shumi - Shirikti-shuqamuna | Dinastía Bazi 1004–985 a. C. Eulmash-shakin-shumi - Shirikti-shuqamuna |
palê Elamtu ("Dinastía de Elam") Mar-biti-apla-usur | Dinastía elamita 984–979 a. C. Mar-biti-apla-usur | VII. Dinastía elamita 984–979 a. C. Mar-biti-apla-usur | Dinastía elamita 984–979 a. C. Mar-biti-apla-usur | |
palê E ("Dinastía de E ") (= ¿Babilonia?) Nabu-mukin-apli - Nabu-shuma-ukin II [n 1] | Dinastía de E c. 979–627 a. C. Nabu-mukin-apli - Kandalanu | Dinastías mixtas 978–626 a. C. Nabu-mukin-apli - Sinsharishkun | VIII. Dinastía de E 978-732 a. C. Nabu-mukin-apli - Nabu-shuma-ukin II | Dinastías inciertas c. 978–? BC Nabu-mukin-apli - Marduk-apla-usur |
Dinastía de E ? –732 a. C. Eriba-Marduk - Nabu-shuma-ukin II | ||||
palê Šapî ("Dinastía de Shapi") Nabu-mukin-zeri | IX. Novena dinastía de Babilonia 731–626 a. C. Nabu-mukin-zeri - Sinsharishkun | Dinastía Shapi 731–729 a. C. Nabu-mukin-zeri | ||
palê Baltil ("Dinastía de Baltil") (= Assur) Tiglat-Pileser y Salmanasar | Dinastía asiria 728–626 a. C. Tiglat-Pileser - Sinsharishkun | |||
palê Tamti ("Dinastía del Sealand") Marduk-apla-iddina II | ||||
palê Ḫabigal ("Dinastía de Habigal") (= Hanigalbat?) Sargón & Sennacherib | ||||
Sin atribuciones dinásticas Marduk-zakir-shumi II y Marduk-apla-iddina II | ||||
palê E ("Dinastía de E ") (= ¿Babilonia?) Bel-ibni | ||||
palê Ḫabigal ("Dinastía de Habigal") (= Hanigalbat?) Ashur-nadin-shumi | ||||
palê E ("Dinastía de E ") (= ¿Babilonia?) Nergal-ushezib & Mushezib-Marduk | ||||
Sin atribuciones dinásticas Esarhaddon - Sin-shumu-lishir | ||||
El resto de la lista se perdió | Dinastía caldea 626–539 a. C. Nabopolasar - Nabonido | Dinastía neobabilónica 626–539 a. C. Nabopolasar - Nabonido | X. Dinastía neobabilónica 625–539 a. C. Nabopolasar - Nabonido | Dinastía caldea 625–539 a. C. Nabopolasar - Nabonido |
Dinastías anteriores
La dinastía amorrea , o simplemente la primera dinastía babilónica, fue la primera dinastía que gobernó desde Babilonia y es la primera dinastía de reyes de Babilonia en la mayoría de las listas de reyes babilónicos, como la lista de reyes babilónicos A. [31] Como tal, los reyes modernos los historiadores la consideran la primera dinastía de reyes de la ciudad. [32] [31] Algunos documentos babilónicos y listas de gobernantes sugieren que ciertas dinastías mesopotámicas anteriores a veces se consideraban dinastías babilónicas anteriores. La Crónica Dinástica registra gobernantes desde los primeros reyes antediluvianos legendarios de la Lista de Reyes sumerios hasta los reyes babilónicos del siglo VIII a. C. [38] También hay evidencia de que los reyes de la última dinastía nativa de Babilonia, la dinastía caldea o neobabilónica, consideraban a los gobernantes del Imperio acadio como la primera dinastía real de Babilonia y a Sargón de Akkad como el fundador de su reino. Las inscripciones de Nabonidus se refieren a Sargón de Akkad como un "rey de Babilonia" en lugar de un "rey de Akkad" y las inscripciones de Nabucodonosor II llaman a Naram-Sin , el hijo de Sargón, su "antepasado", en lugar de los términos más comunes "ex rey "o" predecesor ". [39]
Dinastías posteriores
Los babilonios continuaron reconociendo a los monarcas de los imperios posteriores que gobernaron Babilonia como reyes de Babilonia. El reconocimiento de estos imperios como dinastías adicionales de Babilonia ha sido limitado y variable en la erudición moderna. Beaulieu (2018), que enumeró a la dinastía caldea / neobabilónica como la dinastía X de Babilonia, complementó las dinastías extranjeras que gobernaron Babilonia después del colapso del imperio neobabilónico a las nativas, designando a la dinastía aqueménida del imperio persa como Dinastía XI, los Argeads del imperio de Alejandro Magno como Dinastía XII, los seléucidas del Imperio seléucida como Dinastía XIII y los Arsácidas del Imperio parto como Dinastía XIV. [40]
Dinastía I: dinastía amorrea (c. 1894-1595 a. C.)
Las fechas de reinado a continuación (y para el resto de la lista, cuando corresponda) siguen a Chen (2020), [32] que a su vez sigue la cronología media de la historia mesopotámica, la cronología más comúnmente encontrada en la literatura, incluyendo la mayoría de los libros de texto actuales sobre el arqueología e historia del Antiguo Cercano Oriente . [41] [42] [43]
Image | Name | Reign | Succession & notes | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|
— | Sumu-abum Šumu-abum | c. 1894 – 1881 BC | Babylon's first king, liberated the city from the control of the city-state Kazallu | [32] |
— | Sumu-la-El Šumu-la-El | c. 1880 – 1845 BC | Unclear succession | [32] |
— | Sabium Sabūm | c. 1844 – 1831 BC | Son of Sumu-la-El | [32] |
— | Apil-Sin Apil-Sîn | c. 1830 – 1813 BC | Son of Sabium | [32] |
— | Sin-Muballit Sîn-Muballit | c. 1812 – 1793 BC | Son of Apil-Sin | [32] |
Hammurabi Ḫammu-rāpi | c. 1792 – 1750 BC | Son of Sin-Muballit | [32] | |
— | Samsu-iluna Šamšu-iluna | c. 1749 – 1712 BC | Son of Hammurabi | [32] |
— | Abishi Abiši | c. 1711 – 1684 BC | Son of Samsu-iluna | [32] |
— | Ammi-Ditana Ammi-ditāna | c. 1683 – 1647 BC | Son of Abishi | [32] |
— | Ammi-Saduqa Ammi-Saduqa | c. 1646 – 1626 BC | Son of Ammi-Ditana | [32] |
— | Samsu-Ditana Šamšu-ditāna | c. 1625 – 1595 BC | Son of Ammi-Saduqa | [32] |
Dinastías superpuestas y en conflicto
Samsu-Ditana's reign ended (according to the middle chronology) in 1595 BC with the sack and destruction of Babylon by the Hittites. Babylon and its kingdom would not be firmly re-established until the reign of the Kassite king Agum II.[44] Babylonian king lists consider the kings listed in this section as kings of Babylon between the Amorite dynasty and the later Kassite dynasty, though most of them are unlikely to have ruled Babylon itself and the dynasties likely overlapped significantly.[45] Precise dates for the reigns of these kings are not known.[32]
Dynasty II: First Sealand dynasty
The First Sealand dynasty might only have ruled Babylonia itself for the briefest of periods, being based in formerly Sumerian regions south of it. Nevertheless, it is often traditionally numbered the Second Dynasty of Babylon. Little is known of these rulers. They were counted as kings of Babylon in later king lists, succeeding the Amorite dynasty despite overlapping reigns.[45]
- Ilum-ma-ili (Ilum-ma-ilī), 60 years.[32]
- Itti-ili-nibi (Itti-ili-nībī), 56(?) years.[32]
- Damqi-ilishu (Damqi-ilišu), 26(?) years.[32]
- Ishkibal (Iškibal), 15 years.[32]
- Shushushi (Šušši), 24 years.[32]
- Gulkishar (Gulkišar), 55 years.[32]
- mDIŠ+U-EN (mDIŠ-U-EN, reading unknown), 12 years.[32]
- Peshgaldaramesh (Pešgaldarameš), son of Gulkishar, 50 years.[32]
- Ayadaragalama (Ayadaragalama), son of Peshgaldaramesh, 28 years.[32]
- Akurduana (Akurduana), 26 years.[32]
- Melamkurkurra (Melamkurkurra), 7 years.[32]
- Ea-gamil (Ea-gamil), 9 years.[32]
Early Kassite rulers
These kings also did not actually rule Babylon, but succeeding Kassite kings did. Little is known of these rulers. They were counted as kings of Babylon in later king lists (the first of Dynasty III), succeeding the Sealand dynasty despite overlapping reigns.[45]
- Gandash (Gandaš), 26 years.[32]
- Agum I Mahru (Agum Maḫrû), son of Gandash, 22 years.[32]
- Kashtiliash I (Kaštiliašu), son of Agum I, 22 years.[32]
- Abi-Rattash (Abi-Rattaš or Uššiašu), son of Kashtiliash I, 8(?) years.[32]
- Kashtiliash II (Kaštiliašu).[32]
- Urzigurumash (Ur-zigurumaš or Tazzigurumaš).[32]
- Hurbazum (Ḫurbazum or Ḫarba-Šipak).[32]
- Shipta'ulzi (Šipta’ulzi or Tiptakzi).[32]
Dinastía III: dinastía Kassite (c. Siglo XVI a. C. - 1155 a. C.)
Image | Name | Reign | Succession & notes | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|
— | Agum II Kakrime Agum-Kakrime | Uncertain | Re-established Babylon, son of Urzigurumash | [32] |
— | Burnaburiash I Burna-Buriaš | Uncertain | Son of Agum II | [32] |
— | (Name not recorded) | Uncertain | A king, whose name has not survived, ruled between Burnaburiash I and Kashtiliash III according to the Synchronistic Kinglist | [32] |
— | Kashtiliash III Kaštiliašu | Uncertain | Son of Burnaburiash I | [32] |
— | Ulamburiash Ulam-Buriaš | Uncertain | Son of Burnaburiash I | [32] |
— | Agum III Agum | Uncertain | Son of Kashtiliash III | [32] |
— | Karaindash Karaindaš | Uncertain | Unclear succession | [32] |
— | Kadashman-harbe I Kadašman-Ḫarbe | Uncertain | Unclear succession | [32] |
— | Kurigalzu I Kuri-Galzu | Uncertain | Son of Kadashman-harbe I | [32] |
Kadashman-Enlil I Kadašman-Enlil | c. 1374 – 1360 BC | Son of Kurigalzu I | [32] | |
— | Burnaburiash II Burna-Buriaš | c. 1359 – 1333 BC | Son of Kadashman-Enlil I (?) | [32] |
— | Karahardash Kara-ḫardaš | c. 1333 BC | Son of Burnaburiash II | [32] |
— | Nazibugash Nazi-Bugaš or Šuzigaš | c. 1333 BC | Unrelated to other kings, usurped the throne from Karahardash | [32] |
Kurigalzu II Kuri-Galzu | c. 1332 – 1308 BC | Son of Burnaburiash II, appointed by the Assyrian king Ashur-uballit I | [32] | |
— | Nazimaruttash Nazi-Maruttaš | c. 1307 – 1282 BC | Son of Kurigalzu II | [32] |
— | Kadashman-Turgu Kadašman-Turgu | c. 1281 – 1264 BC | Son of Nazi-Maruttash | [32] |
— | Kadashman-Enlil II Kadašman-Enlil | c. 1263 – 1255 BC | Son of Kadashman-Turgu | [32] |
— | Kudur-Enlil Kudur-Enlil | c. 1254 – 1246 BC | Son of Kadashman-Enlil II | [32] |
— | Shagarakti-Shuriash Šagarakti-Šuriaš | c. 1245 – 1233 BC | Son of Kudur-Enlil | [32] |
— | Kashtiliash IV Kaštiliašu | c. 1232 – 1225 BC | Son of Shagarakti-Shuriash | [32] |
— | Enlil-nadin-shumi Enlil-nādin-šumi | c. 1224 BC | Unclear succession | [32] |
— | Kadashman-harbe II Kadašman-Ḫarbe | c. 1223 BC | Unclear succession | [32] |
— | Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-šuma-iddina | c. 1222 – 1217 BC | Unclear succession | [32] |
— | Adad-shuma-usur Adad-šuma-uṣur | c. 1216 – 1187 BC | Descendant (son?) of Kashtiliash IV | [32] |
Meli-Shipak Meli-Šipak or Melišiḫu | c. 1186 – 1172 BC | Son of Adad-shuma-usur | [32] | |
Marduk-apla-iddina I Marduk-apla-iddina | c. 1171 – 1159 BC | Son of Meli-Shipak | [32] | |
Zababa-shuma-iddin Zababa-šuma-iddina | c. 1158 BC | Unclear succession | [32] | |
— | Enlil-nadin-ahi Enlil-nādin-aḫe or Enlil-šuma-uṣur | c. 1157 – 1155 BC | Unclear succession | [32] |
Dinastía IV: Segunda dinastía de Isin (c. 1157-1026 aC)
Named in reference to the ancient Sumerian (First) Dynasty of Isin. Contemporary Babylonian documents refer to this dynasty as BALA PA.ŠE, a paronomasia (play on words) on the term išinnu ("stalk", written as PA.ŠE), interpreted by some as an apparent reference to the city Isin.[46]
Image | Name | Reign | Succession & notes | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|
— | Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Marduk-kabit-aḫḫēšu | c. 1157 – 1140 BC | Unclear succession, early reign overlaps with Enlil-nadin-ahi's reign | [32] |
— | Itti-Marduk-balatu Itti-Marduk-balāṭu | c. 1139 – 1132 BC | Son of Marduk-kabit-ahheshu | [32] |
— | Ninurta-nadin-shumi Ninurta-nādin-šumi | c. 1131 – 1126 BC | Unclear succession | [32] |
Nebuchadnezzar I Nabû-kudurri-uṣur | c. 1125 – 1104 BC | Son of Ninurta-nadin-shumi | [32] | |
— | Enlil-nadin-apli Enlil-nādin-apli | c. 1103 – 1100 BC | Son of Nebuchadnezzar I | [32] |
Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-nādin-aḫḫē | c. 1099 – 1082 BC | Son of Ninurta-nadin-shumi, usurped the throne from Enlil-nadin-apli | [32] | |
— | Marduk-shapik-zeri Marduk-šāpik-zēri | c. 1081 – 1069 BC | Possibly son of either Marduk-nadin-ahhe or Ninurta-nadin-shumi | [32] |
— | Adad-apla-iddina Adad-apla-iddina | c. 1068 – 1047 BC | Appointed by the Assyrian king Ashur-bel-kala | [32] |
— | Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-aḫḫē-erība | c. 1046 BC | Unclear succession | [32] |
— | Marduk-zer-X Marduk-zer-X | c. 1045 – 1034 BC | Unclear succession | [32] |
— | Nabu-shum-libur Nabû-šumu-libūr | c. 1033 – 1026 BC | Unclear succession | [32] |
Dinastía V: Segunda dinastía Sealand (c. 1025-1005 a. C.)
Evidence that these kings were Kassites, a common assertion, is somewhat lacking.[47]
Image | Name | Reign | Succession & notes | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|
— | Simbar-shipak Simbar-Šipak | c. 1025 – 1008 BC | Usurped the throne from Nabu-shum-libur | [32] |
— | Ea-mukin-zeri Ea-mukin-zēri | c. 1008 BC | Usurped the throne from Simpar-shipak | [32] |
— | Kashshu-nadin-ahi Kaššu-nādin-aḫi | c. 1007 – 1005 BC | Usurped the throne from Ea-mukin-zeri | [32] |
Dinastía VI: dinastía Bazi (c. 1004–985 a. C.)
The Bazi (or Bīt-Bazi) dynasty was a minor Kassite clan. They ruled Babylonia from the city Kar-Marduk, an otherwise unknown location which might have been better protected against raids from nomadic groups than Babylon itself.[48]
Image | Name | Reign | Succession & notes | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|
— | Eulmash-shakin-shumi Eulmaš-šākin-šumi | c. 1004 – 988 BC | Unclear succession | [32] |
— | Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Ninurta-kudurrῑ-uṣur | c. 987 – 985 BC | Unclear succession | [32] |
— | Shirikti-shuqamuna Širikti-šuqamuna | c. 985 BC | Brother of Ninurta-kudurri-usur I | [32] |
Dinastía VII: dinastía elamita (c. 984–979 a. C.)
The Elamite dynasty only contains a single king, Mar-biti-apla-usur.[32]
Image | Name | Reign | Succession & notes | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|
— | Mar-biti-apla-usur Mār-bīti-apla-uṣur | c. 984 – 979 BC | Described as having Elamite ancestry, unclear succession | [32] |
Dinastía VIII: Dinastía de E (c. 978-732 a. C.)
Most of the kings attributed to the dynasty of E in king lists were seemingly unrelated. This list includes all those who were attributed to the dynasty in Babylonian king lists, but modern historians vary in how many kings they view the dynasty as encompassing, ranging from all of them to just the final five.[32][31]
Image | Name | Reign | Succession & notes | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|
Nabu-mukin-apli Nabû-mukin-apli | c. 978 – 943 BC | Unclear succession | [32] | |
— | Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Ninurta-kudurrῑ-uṣur | c. 943 BC | Son of Nabu-mukin-apli | [32] |
— | Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Mār-bῑti-aḫḫē-idinna | Uncertain | Son of Nabu-mukin-apli | [32] |
— | Shamash-mudammiq Šamaš-mudammiq | Uncertain | Unclear succession | [32] |
— | Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabû-šuma-ukin | Uncertain | Unclear succession | [32] |
Nabu-apla-iddina Nabû-apla-iddina | Uncertain, 33 years? | Son of Nabu-shuma-ukin I | [32] | |
Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-zâkir-šumi | Uncertain, 27 years? | Son of Nabu-apla-iddina | [32] | |
— | Marduk-balassu-iqbi Marduk-balāssu-iqbi | Uncertain | Son of Marduk-zakir-shumi I | [32] |
— | Baba-aha-iddina Bāba-aḫa-iddina | Uncertain | Unclear succession | [32] |
Interregnum: Babylon experiences an interregnum following the end of Baba-aha-iddina's reign lasting several years (exact length indeterminable), described as a "kingless" period in Babylonian sources. Several Chaldean chiefs claim either independence or royal power (though none were recognized in Babylonian king lists) during this time, including Marduk-shakin-shumi of the Bit-Yakin (possibly the father of the later king Eriba-Marduk) and Nabu-shumu-lishir of the Bit-Dakkuri.[49] | ||||
— | Ninurta-apla-X Ninurta-apla-X | Uncertain | Unclear succession | [32] |
— | Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-bēl-zēri | Uncertain | Unclear succession | [32] |
— | Marduk-apla-usur Marduk-apla-uṣur | Uncertain | A Chaldean chief, unclear succession | [32] |
— | Eriba-Marduk Erība-Marduk | Uncertain | A Chaldean chief (Bit-Yakin tribe), unclear succession | [32] |
— | Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabû-šuma-iškun | c. 760 – 748 BC | A Chaldean chief (Bit-Dakkuri tribe), unclear succession | [32] |
— | Nabonassar Nabû-nāṣir | 748 – 734 BC | A Native Babylonian, usurped the throne from Nabu-shuma-ishkun | [32] |
— | Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabû-nādin-zēri | 734 – 732 BC | Son of Nabonassar | [32] |
— | Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabû-šuma-ukin | 732 BC | Usurped the throne from Nabu-nadin-zeri | [32] |
Dinastía IX: dinastía asiria (732–626 a. C.)
The Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser III conquered Babylonia in 729 BC.[50] From his rule and onwards, most of the Assyrian kings were also titled as kings of Babylon, ruling both Assyria and Babylonia in something akin to a personal union.[51]
Vassal kings, sometimes appointed instead of the Assyrian king ruling Babylonia directly, are indicated with darker grey background color. Native Babylonians who rebelled against the ruling dynasty of the Neo-Assyrian Empire and attempted to restore Babylonia's independence are indicated with beige background color.
Image | Name | Reign | Succession & notes | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|
— | Nabu-mukin-zeri Nabû-mukin-zēri | 732 – 729 BC | A Chaldean chief (Bit-Amukkani tribe), usurped the throne from Nabu-shuma-ukin II. Alternatively seen as the only king of a brief "Shapi dynasty", preceding the Assyrian conquest. | [32] |
Image | Name | Reign | Succession & notes | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|
Tiglath-Pileser (Tiglath-Pileser III of Assyria) Tukultī-apil-Ešarra | 729 – 727 BC | King of the Neo-Assyrian Empire: conquered Babylon | [32] | |
Shalmaneser (Shalmaneser V of Assyria) Salmānu-ašarēd | 727 – 722 BC | King of the Neo-Assyrian Empire: son of Tiglath-Pileser III | [32] | |
Marduk-apla-iddina II Marduk-apla-iddina (first reign) | 722 – 710 BC | A Chaldean chief (Bit-Yakin tribe), seized power in Babylonia after Shalmaneser V's death, also known as Merodach-Baladan | [32] | |
Sargon (Sargon II of Assyria) Šarru-kīn | 710 – 705 BC | King of the Neo-Assyrian Empire: claimed to be the son of Tiglath-Pileser III, usurped the throne from Shalmaneser V, conquered Babylon in 710 BC | [32] | |
Sennacherib Sîn-ahhe-erība (first reign) | 705 – 703 BC | King of the Neo-Assyrian Empire: son of Sargon II | [32] | |
— | Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-zâkir-šumi | 703 BC | Native Babylonian rebel | [32] |
Marduk-apla-iddina II Marduk-apla-iddina (second reign) | 703 BC | A Chaldean chief (Bit-Yakin tribe), previously king 722–710 BC, usurped the throne from Marduk-zakir-shumi II | [32] | |
— | Bel-ibni Bel-ibni | 703 – 700 BC | Vassal king appointed by Sennacherib | [32] |
— | Ashur-nadin-shumi Aššur-nādin-šumi | 700 – 694 BC | Vassal king appointed by Sennacherib, son of Sennacherib | [32] |
— | Nergal-ushezib Nergal-ušezib | 694 – 693 BC | Native Babylonian rebel | [32] |
— | Mushezib-Marduk Mušezib-Marduk | 693 – 689 BC | A Chaldean chief (Bit-Dakkuri tribe) | [32] |
Sennacherib Sîn-ahhe-erība (second reign) | 689 – 681 BC | King of the Neo-Assyrian Empire: restored control of Babylonia. The city was destroyed in 681 BC and Sennacherib did not assume the title "king of Babylon", though some lists list him as ruler in this time, a practice followed in modern historiography. | [32][52][53] | |
Esarhaddon Aššur-aḫa-iddina | 681 – 669 BC | King of the Neo-Assyrian Empire: son and successor of Sennacherib, rebuilt Babylon | [32][54] | |
Ashurbanipal Aššur-bāni-apli | 669 – 668 BC | King of the Neo-Assyrian Empire: son and successor of Esarhaddon, technically briefly held the kingship before it was given to his brother Shamash-shum-ukin, often omitted from king lists but included in lists by modern historians | [28][32][53] | |
Shamash-shum-ukin Šamaš-šuma-ukin | 668 – 648 BC | Vassal king under Ashurbanipal, brother of Ashurbanipal and son of Esarhaddon | [32] | |
— | Kandalanu Kandalānu | 648 – 627 BC | Vassal king appointed by Ashurbanipal | [32] |
Sin-shumu-lishir Sîn-šumu-līšir | 626 BC | Usurper in the Neo-Assyrian Empire: unclear if he actually used the title "king of Babylon" or if there was an interregnum, included in some king lists and in lists by modern historians | [28][32][53][55] | |
— | Sinsharishkun Sîn-šar-iškun | 626 BC | King of the Neo-Assyrian Empire: son of Ashurbanipal, unclear if he actually used the title "king of Babylon" or if there was an interregnum, included in some king lists and in lists by modern historians | [32][53][55] |
Dinastía X: dinastía caldea (626-539 aC)
The rebel Nabopolassar, proclaimed as Babylon's king in 626 BC, successfully drove out the Assyrians from southern Mesopotamia and had united and consolidated all of Babylonia under his rule by 620 BC, founding the Neo-Babylonian Empire.[56] The Neo-Babylonian (or Chaldean)[32] dynasty was Babylonia's last dynasty of native Mesopotamian monarchs and the fall of their empire in 539 BC marked the end of Babylonia as an independent kingdom.[57]
The native name of this dynasty is not preserved in Babylonian sources, as Babylonian King List A ends with the Assyrian kings. If the Dynastic Prophecy, an Hellenistic-era document, is followed, it appears that the Babylonians separated Nabonidus into a dynasty of his own, the "dynasty of Harran"[58] (palê Ḫarran),[59] though the native arrangement of the other kings, and the name of their dynasty/dynasties, in the Dynastic Prophecy, other than Nabopolassar being firmly established as founding a new dynasty after the fall of Assyria, is not clear on account of it being fragmentary. There is a dividing line prior to Neriglissar, perhaps used to mark the accession of a new dynasty, but the text immediately prior to, and after, this line is not intelligible, making interpretation difficult.[59][60]
Image | Name | Reign | Succession & notes | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|
— | Nabopolassar Nabû-apla-uṣur | 626 – 605 BC | Native Babylonian rebel, successfully drove out the Assyrians and re-established Babylonia as an independent kingdom | [32] |
Nebuchadnezzar II Nabû-kudurri-uṣur | 605 – 562 BC | Son of Nabopolassar | [32] | |
— | Amel-Marduk Amēl-Marduk | 562 – 560 BC | Son of Nebuchadnezzar II | [32] |
— | Neriglissar Nergal-šar-uṣur | 560 – 556 BC | Son-in-law of Nebuchadnezzar II, usurped the throne | [32][61] |
— | Labashi-Marduk Lā-bâš-Marduk | 556 BC | Son of Neriglissar | [32] |
Nabonidus Nabû-naʾid | 556 – 539 BC | Possibly son-in-law of Nebuchadnezzar II (or unrelated), usurped the throne from Labashi-Marduk | [32][61] |
Babilonia bajo imperios extranjeros
Dynasty XI: Achaemenid dynasty (539–331 BC)
In 539, Cyrus the Great of the Persian Achaemenid Empire conquered Babylon, which would never again successfully regain independence. The Babylonians had resented their last native king, Nabonidus, over his religious practices and some of his political choices and Cyrus could thus claim to be the legitimate successor of the ancient Babylonian kings and the avenger of Baylon's national deity, Marduk.[62] The early Achaemenid rulers had great respect for Babylonia, regarding the region as a separate entity or kingdom united with their own kingdom in something akin to a personal union.[11] Despite this, the native Babylonians grew to resent their foreign rulers, as they had with the Assyrians earlier, and rebelled several times. The Achaemenid kings continued to use the title "king of Babylon" alongside their other royal titles until the reign of Xerxes I, who dropped the title in 481 BC, divided the previously large Babylonian satrapy and desecrated Babylon after having had to put down a Babylonian revolt.[11]
In the king lists of the Babylonians, the Achaemenid kings continued to be recognized as Kings of Babylon until the end of the Achaemenid Empire. The Akkadian (Babylonian) names of the monarchs listed here follow the renderings of the names of these monarchs in the Uruk King List (also known as "King List 5") and the Babylonian King List of the Hellenistic Period (also known as BKLHP or “King List 6”), as well as how their names are rendered in contract tablets.[63][64] These lists records rulers, identifying them as "kings of Babylon".[65] The Babylonians saw the Persians as hailing from Elam, describing Cyrus as a "king of Elam" prior to his conquest of Babylon.[60]
Native Babylonians who rebelled against the Achaemenids and attempted to restore Babylonia's independence are indicated with beige background color. Vassal kings are indicated with darker grey background color.
Image | Name | Reign | Succession & notes | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|
Cyrus the Great (Cyrus II of Persia) Kuraš | 539 – 530 BC | King of the Achaemenid Empire: conquered Babylon | [63] | |
Cambyses (Cambyses II of Persia) Kambuzīa | 538 BC, 530 – 522 BC | King of the Achaemenid Empire: son of Cyrus, briefly vassal king under (or co-ruler with) his father in 538 BC as king of Babylon before being dismissed, king again upon Cyrus's death in 530 BC | [63][66][67] | |
Bardiya Barzia | 522 BC | King of the Achaemenid Empire: son of Cyrus or possibly an impostor | [64] | |
Nebuchadnezzar III Nabû-kudurri-uṣur | 522 BC | Native Babylonian rebel, claimed to be a son of Nabonidus, his revolt against Persian rule lasted from October to December 522 BC | [68] | |
Darius I the Great Dariamuš | 522 – 486 BC | King of the Achaemenid Empire: son of Hystaspes, a third cousin of Cyrus, usurped the throne from Bardiya | [63] | |
Nebuchadnezzar IV Nabû-kudurri-uṣur | 521 BC | Babylonian rebel of Armenian descent, claimed to be a son of Nabonidus, his revolt lasted from 25 August to 27 November 521 BC | [68] | |
Xerxes I the Great Aḥšiaršu | 486 – 465 BC | King of the Achaemenid Empire: son of Darius I | [11] | |
— | Shamash-eriba Šamaš-eriba | 484 BC | Native Babylonian rebel, rebelled in the summer of 484 BC, ally or rival of Bel-shimanni | [69] |
— | Bel-shimanni Bêl-šimânni | 484 BC | Native Babylonian rebel, rebelled in the summer of 484 BC, ally or rival of Shamash-eriba | [69] |
Artaxerxes I Artakšatsu | 465 – 424 BC | King of the Achaemenid Empire: son of Xerxes I, the last Achaemenid king documented to have incorporated "king of Babylon" into his own titulary | [11][12][64] | |
Xerxes II Aḥšiaršu | 424 BC | King of the Achaemenid Empire: son of Artaxerxes I | [64] | |
— | Sogdianus Sogdianu | 424 – 423 BC | King of the Achaemenid Empire: son of Artaxerxes I, usurped the throne from Xerxes II | [64] |
Darius II Dariamuš | 423 – 404 BC | King of the Achaemenid Empire: son of Artaxerxes I, usurped the throne from Sogdianus | [64] | |
Artaxerxes II Artakšatsu | 404 – 358 BC | King of the Achaemenid Empire: son of Darius II | [64] | |
Artaxerxes III Artakšatsu | 358 – 338 BC | King of the Achaemenid Empire: son of Artaxerxes II | [64] | |
Artaxerxes IV Artakšatsu | 338 – 336 BC | King of the Achaemenid Empire: son of Artaxerxes III | [64] | |
— | Nidin-Bel Nidin-Bêl | 336 BC or 336 – 335 BC | Only mentioned in the Uruk King List, either a scribal error or a native Babylonian rebel who led a brief revolt | [63] |
Darius III Dariamuš | 336/335 – 331 BC | King of the Achaemenid Empire: great-grandson of Darius II, usurped the throne from Artaxerxes IV | [63] |
Dynasty XII: Argead dynasty (331–309 BC)
Though they probably did not use the title themselves, Babylonian king lists continue to consider the monarchs of the Hellenistic Argead dynasty, which conquered Babylonia and the rest of the Persian Empire under Alexander the Great in 331 BC, as kings of Babylon. The Akkadian (Babylonian) names of the monarchs listed here follow how their names are rendered in these lists.[63][64][65]
Image | Name | Reign | Succession & notes | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|
Alexander I the Great (Alexander III of Macedon) Aliksāndar | 331 – 323 BC | King of Macedon: conquered the Achaemenid Empire | [63] | |
Philip Arrhidaeus (Philip III of Macedon) Pīlipsu | 323 – 317 BC | King of Macedon: brother of Alexander the Great | [63] | |
Alexander II (Alexander IV of Macedon) Aliksāndarusu | 323 – 309 BC | King of Macedon: son of Alexander the Great | [65] |
Image | Name | Reign | Succession & notes | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|
Antigonus Monophthalmus (Antigonus I of the Antigonids) Antigūnusu | 317 – 311 BC | King of the Antigonid Empire: mentioned in some king lists, Babylonian sources suggest that the Babylonians considered Antigonus's rule illegal and that he should have accepted the sovereignty of Alexander the Great's son | [63][65] |
Dynasty XIII: Seleucid dynasty (311–141 BC)
Babylonian king lists continue to consider the monarchs of the Hellenistic Seleucid dynasty, which succeeded the Argeads in Mesopotamia and Persia, as Kings of Babylon.[63][65] Given that Babylonian documents refer to both the Argead and Seleucid kings as "Macedonians" (mākkadunāa),[10] the Babylonians themselves may not necessarily have separated the two into two distinct dynasties.
The Akkadian (Babylonian) names of the monarchs listed here follow how their names are rendered in these lists, as well as how their names are rendered in contract tablets.[63][65] The Antiochus Cylinder of Antiochus I (r. 271–261 BC) is the last known example of an ancient Akkadian royal titulary and it accords him several traditional Mesopotamian titles, such as king of Babylon and king of the Universe.[70]
Rebel leaders (though none were native Babylonians) and local rulers/usurpers who seized the city and were recognized as kings of Babylon by the Babylonians are marked with light blue color.
Image | Name | Reign | Succession & notes | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|
Seleucus I Nicator Siluku | 311 – 281 BC | King of the Seleucid Empire: general (Diadochus) of Alexander the Great, seized Babylonia and much of Alexander's former eastern lands after Alexander's death, Seleucus did not proclaim himself king until 305 BC but Babylonian sources consider him as such from 311 BC onwards | [63] | |
Antiochus I Soter Anti'ukusu | 281 – 261 BC | King of the Seleucid Empire: son of Seleucus I | [63] | |
Antiochus II Theos Anti'ukusu | 261 – 246 BC | King of the Seleucid Empire: son of Antiochus I | [63] | |
Seleucus II Callinicus Siluku | 246 – 225 BC | King of the Seleucid Empire: son of Antiochus II | [63] | |
Seleucus III Ceraunus Siluku | 225 – 223 BC | King of the Seleucid Empire: son of Seleucus II | [65] | |
Antiochus III the Great Anti'ukusu | 222 – 187 BC | King of the Seleucid Empire: son of Seleucus II | [65] | |
Seleucus IV Philopator Siluku | 187 – 175 BC | King of the Seleucid Empire: son of Antiochus III | [65] | |
Antiochus IV Epiphanes Anti'ukusu | 175 – 164 BC | King of the Seleucid Empire: son of Antiochus III | [65] | |
Antiochus V Eupator Anti'ukusu | 164 – 161 BC | King of the Seleucid Empire: son of Antiochus IV | [71] | |
Demetrius I Soter Demeṭri | 161 – 150 BC | King of the Seleucid Empire: son of Seleucus IV | [65] | |
Timarchus Timarkusu | 161 – 160 BC | Satrap of Media, rebelled against Demetrius I, seized Babylon and was briefly recognized there as king | [72] | |
Alexander III Balas (Alexander I of the Seleucids) Aliksāndar | 150 – 145 BC | King of the Seleucid Empire: claimed to be the son of Antiochus IV, usurped the throne from Demetrius I | [73] | |
Demetrius II Nicator Demeṭri | 145 – 141 BC | King of the Seleucid Empire: son of Demetrius I, usurped the throne from Alexander Balas | [65] |
Dynasty XIV: Arsacid dynasty (141 BC – AD 222)
Babylon and the rest of Mesopotamia was lost by the Seleucids to the Parthian Empire in 141 BC. There are no Babylonian king lists which record any ruler after the Seleucids as a King of Babylon.[65] King List 6 ends, after Demetrius II, with a passage referencing "Arsaces the king", indicating that the list was created in the early years of Parthian rule in Mesopotamia (Arsaces being the regnal name used by all Parthian kings). Because the list is so fragmentary, it is unclear if this Arsaces was formally considered a king of Babylon (as the Persian and Hellenic rulers had been) by the list's author.[74]
Under the Parthians, Babylon was gradually abandoned as a major urban center and the old Akkadian culture diminished.[75] Critically, the nearby and newer cities of Seleucia and later Ctesiphon overshadowed Babylon and became the imperial capitals of the region.[76] In the first century or so of Parthian rule, Babylon continued to be somewhat important[75] and documents from this time suggest a continued recognition of at least the early Parthian kings as Babylonian monarchs.[77] The few Babylonian documents that survive from the Parthian era suggest a growing sense of alarm and alienation among the last few Babylonians as the Parthian kings were mostly absent from the city and the Babylonian culture slowly slipped away.[78]
When exactly Babylon was abandoned is unclear. Roman author Pliny the Elder wrote in 50 AD that proximity to Seleucia had turned Babylon into a "barren waste" and during their campaigns in the east, Roman emperors Trajan (in 115 AD) and Septimius Severus (in 199 AD) supposedly found the city destroyed and deserted. Archaeological evidence and the writings of Abba Arikha (c. 219 AD) indicate that at least the temples of Babylon were still active in the early 3rd century.[76] Religious reforms in the early Sasanian Empire c. 230 AD would have decisively wiped out the last remnants of the old Babylonian culture, if it still existed at that point.[79]
Rebel leaders (though none were native Babylonians) and local rulers/usurpers who seized the city and were recognized as kings of Babylon by the Babylonians are marked with light blue color. Seleucid rulers (who briefly regained Babylon) are indicated with pink color.
Image | Name | Reign | Succession & notes | Ref |
---|---|---|---|---|
Mithridates I the Great Aršákā | 141 – 132 BC | King of the Parthian Empire: conquered Babylon and the rest of Mesopotamia | [80] | |
Phraates I (Phraates II of Parthia) Aršákā | 132 – 130 BC | King of the Parthian Empire: son of Mithridates I | [81][82] | |
Antiochus VI Sidetes (Antiochus VII of the Seleucids) Anti'ukusu | 130 – 129 BC | King of the Seleucid Empire: restored Seleucid control of Babylonia in 130 BC | [83] | |
Artabanus (Artabanus I of Parthia) Aršákā and Ártabana | 129 – 124 BC | King of the Parthian Empire: brother of Mithridates I, Babylonian documents suggest that the Parthians were recognized as kings again in 129 BC | [83][84][85] | |
Hyspaosines Aspāsinē | 127 BC | Originally a seleucid satrap and then King of Characene, briefly captured Babylon in 127 BC and was recognized by the Babylonians as their king for a few months | [84] | |
Mithridates II the Great Aršákā | 124 – 91 BC | King of the Parthian Empire: son of Artabanus | [86] | |
Gotarzes (Gotarzes I of Parthia) Aršákā and Gutárzā | 91 – 80 BC[n 2] | King of the Parthian Empire: son of Mithridates II | [88][89] | |
Orodes I Aršákā and Úrudā | 80 – 75 BC | King of the Parthian Empire: son of Gotarzes | [90] | |
— | Arsaces (Arsaces XVI of Parthia) Aršákā | 75 – 67 BC | King of the Parthian Empire: obscure Parthian king attested by some sources, Orodes I's more known successor, Sinatruces, is not mentioned in any Babylonian sources, suggesting he never ruled the city | [91] |
Phraates II (Phraates III of Parthia) Aršákám | 67 – 57 BC | King of the Parthian Empire: son of Sinatruces, captured Babylon | [92] | |
Mithridates III (Mithridates IV of Parthia) Aršákám (first reign) | 57 BC | King of the Parthian Empire: son of Phraates III | [93] | |
Orodes II Aršákám (first reign) | 57–55 BC | King of the Parthian Empire: son of Phraates III, usurped the throne from Mithridates IV | [93] | |
Mithridates III (Mithridates IV of Parthia) Aršákám (second reign) | 55–54 BC | King of the Parthian Empire: retook Babylon and the rest of Mesopotamia briefly 55–54 BC | [93] | |
Orodes II Aršákám (second reign) | 54–37 BC | King of the Parthian Empire: retook Babylon and the rest of Mesopotamia | [93] | |
Phraates III (Phraates IV of Parthia) Aršákám | 37 – 2 BC | King of the Parthian Empire: son of Orodes II, final ruler attested as king in Babylonian sources (in an astronomical diary from 5 BC)[n 3] | [14][15] |
Though noting that the last known cuneiform records are from the 1st century AD and that Babylonia was abandoned at some point during Parthian rule, Beaulieu (2018) considers Dynasty XIV of Babylon, i.e. the Parthians, to have lasted until the end of the Parthian Empire's rule of Mesopotamia in the early 3rd century AD.[40] For later Parthian kings after Phraates IV, see the List of Parthian monarchs.
Ver también
- List of Assyrian kings
- List of Mesopotamian dynasties
- Sumerian King List
Notas
- ^ The Babylonian King List A's long dynasty of E is subdivided into shorter dynasties in the Dynastic Chronicle. This second text of dynastic arrangements is fragmentary, so the full subdivision is not known, but it attributes Marduk-apla-usur to the "Dynasty of Chaldea" (palê Kaldi), Eriba-Marduk to the "Dynasty of the Sealand" (palê Tamti), and Nabu-shuma-ishkun to a second tenure of the "Dynasty of Chaldea" (palê Kaldi).[37]
- ^ Some historians place an additional Parthian king, Mithridates III of Parthia, between Gotarzes I and Orodes I, reigning c. 87–80 BC. Babylonian documents only corroborate the rule of Gotarzes I and Orodes I.[87]
- ^ There are a handful of later cuneiform tablets, but none explicitly name a king. The latest datable tablet is W22340a, dated to 79/80 AD (from the reign of Parthian king Artabanus III). W22340a preserves the word LUGAL (king) but it is too fragmentary to firmly indicate that the intended king is Artabanus III.[94] Furthermore, the tablet was recovered at Uruk,[95] not Babylon (which might have been abandoned at this point).[76]
Referencias
Citations
- ^ a b Soares 2017, p. 23.
- ^ Karlsson 2017, p. 2.
- ^ Goetze 1964, p. 98.
- ^ a b Da Riva 2013, p. 72.
- ^ Soares 2017, p. 24.
- ^ a b Shayegan 2011, p. 260.
- ^ Luckenbill 1924, p. 9.
- ^ a b Soares 2017, p. 28.
- ^ Karlsson 2017, pp. 6, 11.
- ^ a b Stevens 2014, p. 68.
- ^ a b c d e f Dandamaev 1989, pp. 185–186.
- ^ a b Waerzeggers 2018, p. 3.
- ^ Assar 2006, p. 65.
- ^ a b c Boiy 2004, p. 187.
- ^ a b Steele 1998, p. 193.
- ^ Soares 2017, p. 21.
- ^ a b Soares 2017, p. 22.
- ^ New Cyrus Cylinder Translation.
- ^ Cyrus Cylinder Translation.
- ^ Peat 1989, p. 199.
- ^ Van Der Meer 1955, p. 42.
- ^ a b c Zaia 2019, p. 3.
- ^ Laing & Frost 2017.
- ^ Zaia 2019, p. 4.
- ^ Zaia 2019, p. 6.
- ^ Zaia 2019, p. 7.
- ^ Zaia 2019, pp. 6–7.
- ^ a b c d Fales 2014, p. 208.
- ^ a b Beaulieu 2018, p. 13.
- ^ Fales 2014, p. 210.
- ^ a b c d e Beaulieu 2018, p. 12.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn bo bp bq br bs bt bu bv bw bx by bz ca cb cc cd ce cf cg ch ci cj ck cl cm cn co cp cq cr cs ct cu cv cw cx cy cz da db dc dd de df dg dh di dj dk dl dm dn do dp dq dr ds dt du dv dw Chen 2020, pp. 202–206.
- ^ Beaulieu 2018, p. 193.
- ^ Beaulieu 2018, pp. 10–13, 154–155, 176–178.
- ^ Leick 2010, pp. 200–205.
- ^ Van De Mieroop 2016, pp. 352–359.
- ^ Beaulieu 2018, pp. 185–186.
- ^ ABC 18.
- ^ Beaulieu 2003, p. 6.
- ^ a b Beaulieu 2018, p. 14.
- ^ Kuhrt 1997, p. 12.
- ^ Mieroop 2015, p. 4.
- ^ Sagona & Zimansky 2009, p. 251.
- ^ Brinkman 1976, pp. 97–98.
- ^ a b c Synchronic King List.
- ^ Brinkman 1999, pp. 183–184.
- ^ Meissner 1999, p. 8.
- ^ Brinkman 1982, pp. 296–297.
- ^ Beaulieu 2018, pp. 184–185.
- ^ Brinkman 1973, p. 90.
- ^ Van Der Spek 1977, p. 57.
- ^ Frahm 2014, p. 210.
- ^ a b c d Beaulieu 2018, p. 195.
- ^ Porter 1993, p. 67.
- ^ a b Beaulieu 1997, p. 386.
- ^ Lipschits 2005, p. 16.
- ^ Hanish 2008, p. 32.
- ^ Waerzeggers 2015, p. 183.
- ^ a b Thomas, Benjamin D. (2014-07-29). Hezekiah and the Compositional History of the Book of Kings. Mohr Siebeck. ISBN 978-3-16-152935-1.
- ^ a b "Dynastic Prophecy - Livius". www.livius.org. Retrieved 2021-05-10.
- ^ a b Wiseman 1983, p. 12.
- ^ Nijssen 2018.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Lendering 2005.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Bertin 1891, p. 51.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Van Der Spek 2004.
- ^ Dandamaev 1990, pp. 726–729.
- ^ Briant 2002, p. 519.
- ^ a b Lendering 1998.
- ^ a b Waerzeggers 2018, p. 12.
- ^ Stevens 2014, p. 72.
- ^ Lendering 2006a.
- ^ Houghton 1979, p. 215.
- ^ Lendering 2006b.
- ^ Sachs & Wiseman 1954, p. 209.
- ^ a b Van Der Spek 2001, p. 449.
- ^ a b c Brown 2008, p. 77.
- ^ Van Der Spek 2001, p. 451.
- ^ Haubold 2019, p. 276.
- ^ George 2007, p. 64.
- ^ Van Der Spek 2001, p. 450.
- ^ Shayegan 2011, pp. 128-129.
- ^ Assar 2006, p. 58.
- ^ a b Boiy 2004, p. 172.
- ^ a b Shayegan 2011, p. 111.
- ^ Schippmann 1986, pp. 647–650.
- ^ Van Der Spek 2001, p. 454.
- ^ Sellwood 1962, p. 73.
- ^ Van Der Spek 2001, p. 455.
- ^ Assar 2006, p. 62.
- ^ Sellwood 1962, pp. 73, 75.
- ^ Assar 2006, pp. 56, 85.
- ^ Assar 2006, pp. 87–88.
- ^ a b c d Bivar 1983, p. 49.
- ^ Hunger & de Jong 2014, p. 185.
- ^ Hunger & de Jong 2014, p. 182.
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