La historia de Canadá abarca el período desde la llegada de los paleoindios hace miles de años hasta la actualidad. Antes de la colonización europea , las tierras que abarcan el Canadá actual fueron habitadas durante milenios por pueblos indígenas , con distintas redes comerciales, creencias espirituales y estilos de organización social. Algunas de estas civilizaciones más antiguas se habían desvanecido durante mucho tiempo cuando llegaron los primeros europeos y se han descubierto a través de investigaciones arqueológicas .
Desde finales del siglo XV, las expediciones francesas y británicas exploraron, colonizaron y lucharon por varios lugares dentro de América del Norte en lo que constituye el Canadá actual. La colonia de Nueva Francia fue reclamada en 1534 con asentamientos permanentes a partir de 1608. Francia cedió casi todas sus posesiones norteamericanas al Reino Unido en 1763 en el Tratado de París después de la Guerra de los Siete Años . La ahora británica Provincia de Quebec se dividió en Alto y Bajo Canadá en 1791. Las dos provincias se unieron como Provincia de Canadá por el Acta de Unión 1840 , que entró en vigor en 1841. En 1867, la Provincia de Canadá se unió con otras dos colonias británicas de New Brunswick y Nueva Escocia a través de la Confederación , formando una entidad autónoma. Se adoptó "Canadá" como el nombre legal del nuevo país y se confirió la palabra " Dominio " como el título del país. Durante los siguientes ochenta y dos años, Canadá se expandió incorporando otras partes de la Norteamérica británica , terminando con Terranova y Labrador en 1949.
Aunque el gobierno responsable había existido en la América del Norte británica desde 1848, Gran Bretaña continuó estableciendo sus políticas exteriores y de defensa hasta el final de la Primera Guerra Mundial . La aprobación del Estatuto de Westminster en 1931 reconoció que Canadá se había vuelto co-igual con el Reino Unido. La repatriación de la Constitución en 1982 , marcó la eliminación de la dependencia jurídica en el parlamento británico. Canadá consta actualmente de diez provincias y tres territorios y es una democracia parlamentaria y una monarquía constitucional .
Durante siglos, elementos de las costumbres indígenas, francesas, británicas y de los inmigrantes más recientes se han combinado para formar una cultura canadiense que también ha sido fuertemente influenciada por su vecino lingüístico, geográfico y económico, los Estados Unidos . Desde la conclusión de la Segunda Guerra Mundial , los canadienses han apoyado el multilateralismo en el extranjero y el desarrollo socioeconómico .
Gente indígena
Sociedades indígenas
La evidencia genética arqueológica e indígena indica que América del Norte y del Sur fueron los últimos continentes a los que emigraron los humanos . [1] Durante la glaciación de Wisconsin , hace entre 50.000 y 17.000 años, la caída del nivel del mar permitió que las personas se movieran gradualmente a través del puente terrestre de Bering ( Beringia ), desde Siberia hacia el noroeste de América del Norte. [2] En ese momento, fueron bloqueados por la capa de hielo Laurentide que cubría la mayor parte de Canadá, confinándolos a Alaska y el Yukón durante miles de años. [3] Las fechas y rutas exactas del poblamiento de las Américas son objeto de un debate en curso. [4] [5]
Hace 16.000 años, el deshielo de los glaciares permitió a las personas trasladarse por tierra al sur y al este de Beringia y entrar en Canadá. [6] Las islas Haida Gwaii , Old Crow Flats y Bluefish Caves contienen algunos de los primeros sitios arqueológicos paleoindios de Canadá. [7] [8] [9] Los cazadores-recolectores de la Edad de Hielo de este período dejaron herramientas de piedra estriadas de escamas líticas y los restos de grandes mamíferos sacrificados.
El clima de América del Norte se estabilizó alrededor del año 8000 a. C. (hace 10.000 años). Las condiciones climáticas eran similares a los patrones modernos; sin embargo, las capas de hielo glaciar en retroceso todavía cubrían grandes porciones de tierra, creando lagos de agua de deshielo. [10] La mayoría de los grupos de población durante los períodos arcaicos eran todavía cazadores-recolectores de gran movilidad. [11] Sin embargo, los grupos individuales comenzaron a centrarse en los recursos disponibles a nivel local; por lo tanto con el paso del tiempo, hay un patrón de aumento generalización regional (es decir: Paleo-árticas , Plano y Maritime arcaicas tradiciones). [11]
El período cultural de Woodland data de aproximadamente 2000 a. C. a 1000 d. C. y se aplica a las regiones de Ontario, Quebec y Maritime . [12] La introducción de la cerámica distingue a la cultura Woodland de los habitantes anteriores de la etapa Arcaica. La gente de Ontario relacionada con Laurentian fabricó la cerámica más antigua excavada hasta la fecha en Canadá. [13]
La tradición Hopewell es una cultura indígena que floreció a lo largo de los ríos estadounidenses desde el 300 a. C. hasta el 500 d. C. En su mayor medida, el sistema de intercambio Hopewell conectó culturas y sociedades con los pueblos de las orillas canadienses del lago Ontario . [14] La expresión canadiense de los pueblos Hopewellianos abarca los complejos Point Peninsula , Saugeen y Laurel . [15]
Las áreas boscosas del este de lo que se convirtió en Canadá fueron el hogar de los pueblos algonquiano e iroquiano . Se cree que la lengua algonquina se originó en la meseta occidental de Idaho o las llanuras de Montana y se trasladó con los migrantes hacia el este, [16] eventualmente extendiéndose en diversas manifestaciones desde la bahía de Hudson hasta lo que hoy es Nueva Escocia en el este y como muy al sur como la región de Tidewater de Virginia . [17]
Los hablantes de lenguas algonquianas del este incluían a los mi'kmaq y abenaki de la región marítima de Canadá y probablemente al extinto beothuk de Terranova . [18] [19] Los hablantes de ojibwa y otros anishinaabe de las lenguas algonquianas centrales conservan la tradición oral de haberse mudado a sus tierras alrededor de los Grandes Lagos occidental y central desde el mar, probablemente la costa atlántica. [20] Según la tradición oral, los Ojibwa formaron el Consejo de los Tres Fuegos en 796 EC con los Odawa y los Potawatomi . [21]
Las Cinco Naciones de los iroqueses (Haudenosaunee) se centraron desde al menos 1000 EC en el norte de Nueva York, pero su influencia se extendió a lo que ahora es el sur de Ontario y el área de Montreal de la moderna Quebec. Hablaban variedades de lenguas iroquesas. [22] La Confederación Iroquesa , según la tradición oral, se formó en 1142 EC. [23] [24] Además, había otros pueblos de habla iroquesa en el área, incluidos los iroqueses de San Lorenzo , los Erie y otros.
En las Grandes Llanuras , los cree o nēhilawē (que hablaban una lengua algonquina central estrechamente relacionada , la lengua cree de las llanuras ) dependían de las vastas manadas de bisontes para abastecerse de alimentos y muchas otras necesidades. [25] Al noroeste estaban los pueblos de las lenguas Na-Dene , que incluyen a los pueblos de habla Athapaskan y los Tlingit , que vivían en las islas del sur de Alaska y el norte de Columbia Británica . Se cree que el grupo de idiomas Na-Dene está vinculado a los idiomas yeniseianos de Siberia. [26] El dene del Ártico occidental puede representar una ola distinta de migración de Asia a América del Norte. [26]
El interior de la Columbia Británica fue el hogar de los grupos lingüísticos de Salishan , como los grupos lingüísticos Shuswap (Secwepemc) , Okanagan y Athabaskan del sur, principalmente Dakelh (Portador) y Tsilhqot'in . [27] Las ensenadas y valles de la costa de Columbia Británica albergaron poblaciones grandes y distintivas, como Haida , Kwakwaka'wakw y Nuu-chah-nulth , sostenidas por los abundantes salmones y mariscos de la región. [27] Estos pueblos desarrollaron culturas complejas dependientes del cedro rojo occidental que incluían casas de madera, canoas de guerra y caza de ballenas en alta mar y artículos de potlatch elaboradamente tallados y tótems . [27]
En el archipiélago ártico , los distintivos paleo-esquimales conocidos como pueblos Dorset , cuya cultura se remonta a alrededor del 500 a. C., fueron reemplazados por los antepasados de los inuit actuales en el año 1500 d. C. [28] Esta transición está respaldada por registros arqueológicos y la mitología inuit que habla de haber expulsado a los Tuniit o "primeros habitantes". [29] Las leyes tradicionales inuit son antropológicamente diferentes de la ley occidental . El derecho consuetudinario no existía en la sociedad inuit antes de la introducción del sistema legal canadiense . [30]
Contacto europeo
Los nórdicos , que se habían asentado en Groenlandia e Islandia , llegaron alrededor del año 1000 d.C. y construyeron un pequeño asentamiento en L'Anse aux Meadows en el extremo norte de Terranova (estimación de datación por carbono 990-1050 d.C.). [31] L'Anse aux Meadows, el único sitio nórdico confirmado en América del Norte fuera de Groenlandia, también es notable por su conexión con el intento de asentamiento de Vinland por Leif Erikson alrededor del mismo período o, más ampliamente, con la exploración nórdica del Américas . [31] [32]
Bajo la patente de las cartas del rey Enrique VII de Inglaterra , el italiano John Cabot se convirtió en el primer europeo conocido en desembarcar en Canadá después de la era vikinga . Los registros indican que el 24 de junio de 1497 avistó tierra en un lugar del norte que se cree que está en algún lugar de las provincias atlánticas . [33] La tradición oficial considera que el primer lugar de aterrizaje se encuentra en Cabo Bonavista , Terranova, aunque son posibles otras ubicaciones. [34] Después de 1497, Cabot y su hijo Sebastian Cabot continuaron haciendo otros viajes para encontrar el Paso del Noroeste , y otros exploradores continuaron navegando desde Inglaterra hacia el Nuevo Mundo, aunque los detalles de estos viajes no están bien registrados. [35]
Con base en el Tratado de Tordesillas , la Corona española afirmó que tenía derechos territoriales en el área visitada por John Cabot en 1497 y 1498 CE. [36] Sin embargo, exploradores portugueses como João Fernandes Lavrador continuarían visitando la costa del Atlántico norte, lo que explica la aparición de " Labrador " en los mapas de la época. [37] En 1501 y 1502 los hermanos Corte-Real exploraron Terranova (Terra Nova) y Labrador reclamando estas tierras como parte del Imperio Portugués . [37] [38] En 1506, el rey Manuel I de Portugal creó impuestos para las pesquerías de bacalao en aguas de Terranova. [39] João Álvares Fagundes y Pêro de Barcelos establecieron puestos de pesca en Terranova y Nueva Escocia alrededor de 1521 EC; sin embargo, estos fueron abandonados más tarde, y los colonizadores portugueses centraron sus esfuerzos en América del Sur. [40] El alcance y la naturaleza de la actividad portuguesa en el continente canadiense durante el siglo XVI sigue siendo poco claro y controvertido. [41] [42]
Canadá bajo dominio francés
El interés francés en el Nuevo Mundo comenzó con Francisco I de Francia , quien en 1524 patrocinó la navegación de Giovanni da Verrazzano por la región entre Florida y Terranova con la esperanza de encontrar una ruta hacia el Océano Pacífico . [43] Aunque los ingleses lo reclamaron en 1497 cuando John Cabot tocó tierra en algún lugar de la costa de América del Norte (probablemente la actual Terranova o Nueva Escocia ) y reclamó la tierra para Inglaterra en nombre de Enrique VII , [44 ] estas reclamaciones no se ejercieron e Inglaterra no intentó crear una colonia permanente. En cuanto a los franceses, sin embargo, Jacques Cartier plantó una cruz en la península de Gaspé en 1534 y reclamó la tierra en nombre de Francisco I, creando una región llamada " Canadá " el verano siguiente. [45] Cartier había navegado por el río San Lorenzo hasta los rápidos de Lachine , hasta el lugar donde ahora se encuentra Montreal. [46] Los intentos de asentamiento permanente de Cartier en Charlesbourg-Royal en 1541, en la isla Sable en 1598 por el marqués de La Roche-Mesgouez, y en Tadoussac, Quebec en 1600 por François Gravé Du Pont, finalmente fracasaron. [47] A pesar de estos fracasos iniciales, las flotas pesqueras francesas visitaron las comunidades de la costa atlántica y navegaron hacia el río San Lorenzo , comerciando y haciendo alianzas con las Primeras Naciones , [48] y estableciendo asentamientos pesqueros como en Percé (1603). [49] Como resultado del reclamo y las actividades de Francia en la colonia de Canadá, el nombre Canadá se encontró en mapas internacionales que muestran la existencia de esta colonia dentro de la región del río San Lorenzo. [50]
En 1604, se concedió un monopolio del comercio de pieles en América del Norte a Pierre Du Gua, señor de Mons . [51] El comercio de pieles se convirtió en una de las principales empresas económicas de América del Norte. [52] Du Gua dirigió su primera expedición de colonización a una isla ubicada cerca de la desembocadura del río St. Croix . Entre sus lugartenientes se encontraba un geógrafo llamado Samuel de Champlain , quien rápidamente llevó a cabo una importante exploración de la costa noreste de lo que hoy es Estados Unidos. [51] En la primavera de 1605, bajo Samuel de Champlain, el nuevo asentamiento de St. Croix se trasladó a Port Royal (hoy Annapolis Royal, Nueva Escocia ). [53] Samuel de Champlain también aterrizó en Saint John Harbour el 24 de junio de 1604 (la fiesta de San Juan Bautista) y es donde la ciudad de Saint John, New Brunswick y el río Saint John recibe su nombre. [54]
En 1608, Champlain fundó lo que hoy es la ciudad de Quebec , uno de los primeros asentamientos permanentes, que se convertiría en la capital de Nueva Francia. [55] Se hizo cargo de la administración personal de la ciudad y sus asuntos, y envió expediciones para explorar el interior. [56] Champlain se convirtió en el primer europeo conocido en encontrarse con el lago Champlain en 1609. Para 1615, había viajado en canoa por el río Ottawa a través del lago Nipissing y la bahía Georgian hasta el centro de la región de los hurones cerca del lago Simcoe . [57] Durante estos viajes, Champlain ayudó a los Wendat (también conocidos como "hurones") en sus batallas contra la Confederación Iroquois. [58] Como resultado, los iroqueses se convertirían en enemigos de los franceses y se verían involucrados en múltiples conflictos (conocidos como las guerras francesa e iroquesa ) hasta la firma de la Gran Paz de Montreal en 1701. [59]
El Inglés, dirigido por Humphrey Gilbert , había reclamado San Juan de Terranova , en 1583 como la primera de América del Norte colonia Inglés por prerrogativa real de la reina Isabel I . [60] Durante el reinado del rey Jacobo I , los ingleses establecieron colonias adicionales en Cupidos y Ferryland , Terranova , y poco después establecieron los primeros asentamientos permanentes exitosos de Virginia al sur. [61] El 29 de septiembre de 1621, el rey James concedió a Sir William Alexander una carta para la fundación de una colonia escocesa del Nuevo Mundo . [62] En 1622, los primeros colonos abandonaron Escocia. Inicialmente fracasaron y los asentamientos permanentes de Nueva Escocia no se establecieron firmemente hasta 1629 durante el final de la guerra anglo-francesa . [62] Estas colonias no duraron mucho, excepto las pesquerías en Ferryland bajo Sir David Kirke . [63] En 1631, bajo Carlos I de Inglaterra , se firmó el Tratado de Suza , que puso fin a la guerra y devolvió Nueva Escocia a los franceses. [64] Nueva Francia no fue completamente restaurada al dominio francés hasta el Tratado de Saint-Germain-en-Laye de 1632 . [65] Esto llevó a nuevos inmigrantes franceses y la fundación de Trois-Rivières en 1634. [66]
Después de la muerte de Champlain en 1635, la Iglesia Católica Romana y el establecimiento jesuita se convirtieron en la fuerza más dominante en Nueva Francia y esperaban establecer una comunidad cristiana europea y aborigen utópica . [67] En 1642, los sulpicianos patrocinaron a un grupo de colonos liderados por Paul Chomedey de Maisonneuve , quien fundó Ville-Marie, precursor de la actual Montreal . [68] En 1663, la corona francesa tomó el control directo de las colonias de la Compañía de Nueva Francia . [69]
Aunque las tasas de inmigración a Nueva Francia permanecieron muy bajas bajo el control directo francés, [70] la mayoría de los recién llegados eran agricultores, y la tasa de crecimiento de la población entre los propios colonos había sido muy alta. [71] Las mujeres tenían aproximadamente un 30 por ciento más de hijos que las mujeres comparables que permanecieron en Francia. [72] Yves Landry dice: "Los canadienses tenían una dieta excepcional para su época". [72] Esto se debió a la abundancia natural de carne, pescado y agua pura; las buenas condiciones de conservación de los alimentos durante el invierno; y un suministro adecuado de trigo en la mayoría de los años. [72] El censo de Nueva Francia de 1666 fue realizado por el intendente de Francia , Jean Talon , en el invierno de 1665-1666. El censo mostró un recuento de la población de 3.215 acadianos y habitantes (agricultores franco-canadienses) en los distritos administrativos de Acadia y Canadá. [73] El censo también reveló una gran diferencia en el número de hombres en 2.034 frente a 1.181 mujeres. [74]
Guerras durante la era colonial
A principios de la década de 1700, los colonos de Nueva Francia estaban bien establecidos a lo largo de las orillas del río San Lorenzo y partes de Nueva Escocia, con una población de alrededor de 16.000 habitantes. [75] Sin embargo, los recién llegados dejaron de venir de Francia en las décadas siguientes, [76] [77] [78] lo que resultó en que los colonos ingleses y escoceses en Terranova, Nueva Escocia y las Trece Colonias del sur superaran ampliamente en número a la población francesa en aproximadamente diez a uno en la década de 1750. [70] [79]
Desde 1670, a través de la Compañía de la Bahía de Hudson , los ingleses también reclamaron la Bahía de Hudson y su cuenca de drenaje conocida como Rupert's Land, estableciendo nuevos puestos comerciales y fuertes , mientras continuaban operando asentamientos pesqueros en Terranova. [80] La expansión francesa a lo largo de las rutas de canoas canadienses desafió las afirmaciones de la Compañía de la Bahía de Hudson, y en 1686, Pierre Troyes dirigió una expedición por tierra desde Montreal hasta la costa de la bahía , donde lograron capturar un puñado de puestos de avanzada. [81] Las exploraciones de La Salle le dieron a Francia un derecho al valle del río Mississippi , donde los cazadores de pieles y algunos colonos establecieron fortalezas y asentamientos dispersos . [82]
Hubo cuatro guerras francesas e indias y dos guerras adicionales en Acadia y Nueva Escocia entre las trece colonias americanas y Nueva Francia de 1688 a 1763. Durante la Guerra del Rey William (1688 a 1697), los conflictos militares en Acadia incluyeron: Batalla de Port Royal ( 1690) ; una batalla naval en la Bahía de Fundy ( Acción del 14 de julio de 1696 ); y el Raid on Chignecto (1696) . [83] El Tratado de Ryswick en 1697 puso fin a la guerra entre las dos potencias coloniales de Inglaterra y Francia durante un breve período. [84] Durante la Guerra de la Reina Ana (1702 a 1713), la conquista británica de Acadia ocurrió en 1710, [85] dando como resultado que Nueva Escocia, aparte del Cabo Bretón, fuera cedida oficialmente a los británicos por el Tratado de Utrecht, incluida Rupert's Land, que Francia había conquistado a finales del siglo XVII ( Batalla de la bahía de Hudson ). [86] Como resultado inmediato de este revés, Francia fundó la poderosa Fortaleza de Louisbourg en la isla del Cabo Bretón . [87]
Louisbourg estaba destinado a servir como base militar y naval durante todo el año para el imperio norteamericano restante de Francia y para proteger la entrada al río San Lorenzo. La guerra del padre Rale resultó en la caída de la influencia de Nueva Francia en el actual Maine y en el reconocimiento británico de tener que negociar con los Mi'kmaq en Nueva Escocia. Durante la Guerra del Rey Jorge (1744 a 1748), un ejército de Nueva Inglaterra dirigido por William Pepperrell montó una expedición de 90 barcos y 4.000 hombres contra Louisbourg en 1745. [88] En tres meses, la fortaleza se rindió. El regreso de Louisbourg al control francés por el tratado de paz llevó a los británicos a fundar Halifax en 1749 bajo Edward Cornwallis . [89] A pesar del cese oficial de la guerra entre los imperios británico y francés con el Tratado de Aix-la-Chapelle ; el conflicto en Acadia y Nueva Escocia continuó como la Guerra del Padre Le Loutre . [90]
Los británicos ordenaron la expulsión de los acadianos de sus tierras en 1755 durante la Guerra de Francia e India , un evento llamado Expulsión de los acadianos o le Grand Dérangement . [91] La "expulsión" resultó en el envío de aproximadamente 12.000 acadienses a destinos en toda Gran Bretaña de América del Norte y Francia, Quebec y la colonia caribeña francesa de Saint-Domingue . [92] La primera ola de expulsión de los acadianos comenzó con la Campaña de la Bahía de Fundy (1755) y la segunda ola comenzó después del Asedio final de Louisbourg (1758) . Muchos de los acadianos se establecieron en el sur de Luisiana , creando allí la cultura cajún . [93] Algunos acadianos lograron esconderse y otros finalmente regresaron a Nueva Escocia, pero fueron superados en número por una nueva migración de plantadores de Nueva Inglaterra que se establecieron en las antiguas tierras de los acadianos y transformaron a Nueva Escocia de una colonia de ocupación para el Británico a una colonia establecida con vínculos más fuertes con Nueva Inglaterra. [93] Gran Bretaña finalmente obtuvo el control de la ciudad de Quebec después de la Batalla de las Llanuras de Abraham y la Batalla de Fort Niagara en 1759, y finalmente capturó Montreal en 1760. [94]
Canadá bajo dominio británico
Como parte de los términos del Tratado de París (1763) , firmado después de la derrota de Nueva Francia en la Guerra de los Siete Años , Francia renunció a sus reclamos de territorio en la parte continental de América del Norte , a excepción de los derechos de pesca frente a Terranova y las dos islas pequeñas. de San Pedro y Miquelón donde sus pescadores podían secar sus pescados. Francia ya había transferido en secreto su vasto territorio de Luisiana a España en virtud del Tratado de Fontainebleau (1762) en el que el rey Luis XV de Francia había cedido a su primo el rey Carlos III de España toda el área de la cuenca de drenaje del río Mississippi desde los Grandes Lagos. al Golfo de México y desde los Apalaches hasta las Montañas Rocosas . Francia y España mantuvieron en secreto el Tratado de Fontainebleau de otros países hasta 1764. [95] Gran Bretaña devolvió a Francia su colonia productora de azúcar más importante, Guadalupe , que los franceses consideraban más valiosa que Canadá. (Guadalupe producía más azúcar que todas las islas británicas juntas, y Voltaire había descartado notoriamente a Canadá como "Quelques arpents de neige", " Unos pocos acres de nieve "). [96]
Tras el Tratado de París, el rey Jorge III emitió la Proclamación Real de 1763 . [97] La proclamación organizó el nuevo imperio norteamericano de Gran Bretaña y estabilizó las relaciones entre la Corona británica y los pueblos aborígenes , reconociendo formalmente el título aborigen, el comercio regulado, los asentamientos y la compra de tierras en la frontera occidental . [97] En el antiguo territorio francés, los nuevos gobernantes británicos de Canadá primero abolieron y luego reinstalaron la mayor parte de la cultura patrimonial, religiosa, política y social de los habitantes de habla francesa , garantizando el derecho de los canadienses a practicar la religión católica. fe y al uso de la ley civil francesa (ahora Código Civil de Quebec ) a través de la Ley de Quebec de 1774. [98]
Revolución estadounidense y los leales
Durante la Revolución Estadounidense , hubo cierta simpatía por la causa estadounidense entre los acadianos y los habitantes de Nueva Inglaterra en Nueva Escocia. [99] Ninguno de los partidos se unió a los rebeldes, aunque varios cientos de personas se unieron a la causa revolucionaria. [99] [100] Una invasión de Quebec por parte del Ejército Continental en 1775, con el objetivo de tomar Quebec del control británico, fue detenida en la Batalla de Quebec por Guy Carleton , con la ayuda de las milicias locales. La derrota del ejército británico durante el asedio de Yorktown en octubre de 1781 marcó el final de la lucha de Gran Bretaña para reprimir la Revolución Americana. [101]
Cuando los británicos evacuaron la ciudad de Nueva York en 1783, llevaron a muchos refugiados leales a Nueva Escocia, mientras que otros leales se dirigieron al suroeste de Quebec. Tantos leales llegaron a las orillas del río St. John que se creó una colonia separada, New Brunswick , en 1784; [102] seguido en 1791 por la división de Quebec en el Bajo Canadá ( Canadá francés ), en gran parte francófono, a lo largo del río San Lorenzo y la península de Gaspé y un Alto Canadá leal anglófono , con su capital asentada en 1796 en York (actual- día Toronto ). [103] Después de 1790, la mayoría de los nuevos colonos eran agricultores estadounidenses en busca de nuevas tierras; aunque en general favorables al republicanismo, fueron relativamente apolíticos y se mantuvieron neutrales en la guerra de 1812 . [104] En 1785, Saint John, New Brunswick se convirtió en la primera ciudad incorporada en lo que más tarde se convertiría en Canadá. [54]
La firma del Tratado de París en 1783 terminó formalmente la guerra. Gran Bretaña hizo varias concesiones a los estadounidenses a expensas de las colonias norteamericanas. [105] En particular, las fronteras entre Canadá y Estados Unidos fueron demarcadas oficialmente; [105] toda la tierra al sur de los Grandes Lagos, que antes formaba parte de la provincia de Quebec e incluía las actuales Michigan, Illinois y Ohio, fue cedida a los estadounidenses. También se concedieron derechos de pesca a los Estados Unidos en el Golfo de San Lorenzo y en la costa de Terranova y los Grandes Bancos . [105] Los británicos ignoraron parte del tratado y mantuvieron sus puestos de avanzada militares en las áreas de los Grandes Lagos que había cedido a los Estados Unidos, y continuaron suministrando municiones a sus aliados nativos. Los británicos evacuaron los puestos de avanzada con el Tratado de Jay de 1795, pero el suministro continuo de municiones irritó a los estadounidenses en el período previo a la Guerra de 1812. [106]
Los historiadores canadienses han tenido opiniones encontradas sobre el impacto a largo plazo de la Revolución Americana. Arthur Lower en la década de 1950 proporcionó la interpretación histórica estándar de que para el Canadá inglés los resultados fueron contrarrevolucionarios:
[El Canadá inglés] heredó, no los beneficios, sino la amargura de la Revolución…. El Canadá inglés comenzó su vida con un empujón nostálgico hacia el pasado tan poderoso como el que la Conquista había dado al Canadá francés: dos pequeños pueblos oficialmente dedicados a la contrarrevolución, a las causas perdidas, a los ideales de mal gusto de una sociedad de hombres y amos, y no a la libertad autosuficiente junto a ellos. [107]
Recientemente, Michel Ducharme ha estado de acuerdo en que Canadá efectivamente se opuso a la "libertad republicana", como lo ejemplificaron Estados Unidos y Francia. Sin embargo, dice que sí encontró un camino diferente cuando luchó contra los gobernantes británicos después de 1837 para asegurar la "libertad moderna". Esa forma de libertad se centró no en las virtudes de los ciudadanos sino en proteger sus derechos de las infracciones por parte del estado. [108] [109]
Guerra de 1812
La Guerra de 1812 se libró entre los Estados Unidos y los británicos, con las colonias británicas de América del Norte muy involucradas. [110] Superados en gran medida por la Royal Navy británica , los planes de guerra estadounidenses se centraron en una invasión de Canadá (especialmente en lo que es hoy el este y el oeste de Ontario ). Los estados fronterizos estadounidenses votaron a favor de la guerra para reprimir las redadas de las Primeras Naciones que frustraron el asentamiento de la frontera. [110] La guerra en la frontera con los Estados Unidos se caracterizó por una serie de múltiples invasiones fallidas y fiascos en ambos lados. Las fuerzas estadounidenses tomaron el control del lago Erie en 1813, expulsando a los británicos del oeste de Ontario, matando al líder Shawnee Tecumseh y rompiendo el poder militar de su confederación . [111] La guerra fue supervisada por oficiales del ejército británico como Isaac Brock y Charles de Salaberry con la ayuda de las Primeras Naciones e informantes leales, sobre todo Laura Secord . [112]
La guerra terminó sin cambios de fronteras gracias al Tratado de Gante de 1814 y al Tratado Rush-Bagot de 1817. [110] Un resultado demográfico fue el cambio del destino de la migración estadounidense desde el Alto Canadá a Ohio , Indiana y Michigan , sin miedo a los ataques indígenas. [110] Después de la guerra, los partidarios de Gran Bretaña intentaron reprimir el republicanismo que era común entre los inmigrantes estadounidenses en Canadá . [110] El inquietante recuerdo de la guerra y las invasiones estadounidenses se grabó en la conciencia de los canadienses como una desconfianza de las intenciones de los Estados Unidos hacia la presencia británica en América del Norte. [113] págs. 254-255
Rebellions and the Durham Report
The rebellions of 1837 against the British colonial government took place in both Upper and Lower Canada. In Upper Canada, a band of Reformers under the leadership of William Lyon Mackenzie took up arms in a disorganized and ultimately unsuccessful series of small-scale skirmishes around Toronto, London, and Hamilton.[114]
In Lower Canada, a more substantial rebellion occurred against British rule. Both English- and French-Canadian rebels, sometimes using bases in the neutral United States, fought several skirmishes against the authorities. The towns of Chambly and Sorel were taken by the rebels, and Quebec City was isolated from the rest of the colony. Montreal rebel leader Robert Nelson read the "Declaration of Independence of Lower Canada" to a crowd assembled at the town of Napierville in 1838.[115] The rebellion of the Patriote movement was defeated after battles across Quebec. Hundreds were arrested, and several villages were burnt in reprisal.[115]
The British government then sent Lord Durham to examine the situation; he stayed in Canada only five months before returning to Britain and brought with him his Durham Report, which strongly recommended responsible government.[116] A less well-received recommendation was the amalgamation of Upper and Lower Canada for the deliberate assimilation of the French-speaking population. The Canadas were merged into a single colony, the United Province of Canada, by the 1840 Act of Union, and responsible government was achieved in 1848, a few months after it was accomplished in Nova Scotia.[116] The parliament of United Canada in Montreal was set on fire by a mob of Tories in 1849 after the passing of an indemnity bill for the people who suffered losses during the rebellion in Lower Canada.[117]
Between the Napoleonic Wars and 1850, some 800,000 immigrants came to the colonies of British North America, mainly from the British Isles, as part of the great migration of Canada.[118] These included Gaelic-speaking Highland Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances to Nova Scotia and Scottish and English settlers to the Canadas, particularly Upper Canada. The Irish Famine of the 1840s significantly increased the pace of Irish Catholic immigration to British North America, with over 35,000 distressed Irish landing in Toronto alone in 1847 and 1848.[119]
Pacific colonies
Spanish explorers had taken the lead in the Pacific Northwest coast, with the voyages of Juan José Pérez Hernández in 1774 and 1775.[120] By the time the Spanish determined to build a fort on Vancouver Island, the British navigator James Cook had visited Nootka Sound and charted the coast as far as Alaska, while British and American maritime fur traders had begun a busy era of commerce with the coastal peoples to satisfy the brisk market for sea otter pelts in China, thereby launching what became known as the China Trade.[121] In 1789 war threatened between Britain and Spain on their respective rights; the Nootka Crisis was resolved peacefully largely in favour of Britain, the much stronger naval power at the time. In 1793 Alexander MacKenzie, a Scotsman working for the North West Company, crossed the continent and with his Aboriginal guides and French-Canadian crew, reached the mouth of the Bella Coola River, completing the first continental crossing north of Mexico, missing George Vancouver's charting expedition to the region by only a few weeks.[122] In 1821, the North West Company and Hudson's Bay Company merged, with a combined trading territory that was extended by a licence to the North-Western Territory and the Columbia and New Caledonia fur districts, which reached the Arctic Ocean on the north and the Pacific Ocean on the west.[123]
The Colony of Vancouver Island was chartered in 1849, with the trading post at Fort Victoria as the capital. This was followed by the Colony of the Queen Charlotte Islands in 1853, and by the creation of the Colony of British Columbia in 1858 and the Stikine Territory in 1861, with the latter three being founded expressly to keep those regions from being overrun and annexed by American gold miners.[124] The Colony of the Queen Charlotte Islands and most of the Stikine Territory were merged into the Colony of British Columbia in 1863 (the remainder, north of the 60th Parallel, became part of the North-Western Territory).[124]
Confederación
The Seventy-Two Resolutions from the 1864 Quebec Conference and Charlottetown Conference laid out the framework for uniting British colonies in North America into a federation.[125] The Resolutions became the basis for the London Conference of 1866, which led to the formation of the Dominion of Canada on July 1, 1867.[125] The term dominion was chosen to indicate Canada's status as a self-governing colony of the British Empire, the first time it was used about a country.[126] With the coming into force of the British North America Act, 1867 (enacted by the British Parliament), Canada became a federated country in its own right.[127][128][129] (According to J. McCullough, use of the phrase "Dominion of Canada ... was gradually phased out" during the "late 1940s, 50s, and early 60s" with the growth of "post-colonial Canadian nationalism".)[130]
Federation emerged from multiple impulses: the British wanted Canada to defend itself; the Maritimes needed railroad connections, which were promised in 1867; British-Canadian nationalism sought to unite the lands into one country, dominated by the English language and British culture; many French-Canadians saw an opportunity to exert political control within a new largely French-speaking Quebec[113]pp. 323–324 and fears of possible U.S. expansion northward.[126] On a political level, there was a desire for the expansion of responsible government and elimination of the legislative deadlock between Upper and Lower Canada, and their replacement with provincial legislatures in a federation.[126] This was especially pushed by the liberal Reform movement of Upper Canada and the French-Canadian Parti rouge in Lower Canada who favoured a decentralized union in comparison to the Upper Canadian Conservative party and to some degree the French-Canadian Parti bleu, which favoured a centralized union.[126][131]
Early post-Confederation Canada (1867–1914)
Territorial expansion west
Using the lure of the Canadian Pacific Railway, a transcontinental line that would unite the nation, Ottawa attracted support in the Maritimes and in British Columbia. In 1866, the Colony of British Columbia and the Colony of Vancouver Island merged into a single Colony of British Columbia. After Rupert's Land was transferred to Canada by Britain in 1870, connecting to the eastern provinces, British Columbia joined Canada in 1871. In 1873, Prince Edward Island joined. Newfoundland—which had no use for a transcontinental railway—voted no in 1869, and did not join Canada until 1949.[132]
In 1873, John A. Macdonald (First Prime Minister of Canada) created the North-West Mounted Police (now the Royal Canadian Mounted Police) to help police the Northwest Territories.[133] Specifically the Mounties were to assert Canadian sovereignty to prevent possible American encroachments into the area.[133] The Mounties' first large-scale mission was to suppress the second independence movement by Manitoba's Métis, a mixed-blood people of joint First Nations and European descent, who originated in the mid-17th century.[134] The desire for independence erupted in the Red River Rebellion in 1869 and the later North-West Rebellion in 1885 led by Louis Riel.[133][135] Suppressing the Rebellion was Canada's first independent military action. It cost about $5 million and demonstrated the need to complete the Canadian Pacific Railway. It guaranteed Anglophone control of the Prairies, and demonstrated the national government was capable of decisive action. However, it lost the Conservative Party most of their support in Quebec and led to permanent distrust of the Anglophone community on the part of the Francophones.[136]
As Canada expanded, the Canadian government rather than the British Crown negotiated treaties with the resident First Nations' peoples, beginning with Treaty 1 in 1871.[137] The treaties extinguished aboriginal title on traditional territories, created reserves for the indigenous peoples' exclusive use, and opened up the rest of the territory for settlement. Indigenous people were induced to move to these new reserves, sometimes forcibly.[138] The government imposed the Indian Act in 1876 to govern the relations between the federal government and the Indigenous peoples and govern the relations between the new settlers and the Indigenous peoples.[139] Under the Indian Act, the government started the Residential School System to integrate the Indigenous peoples and "civilize" them.[140][141][142]
In the 1890s, legal experts codified a framework of criminal law, culminating in the Criminal Code, 1892.[143] This solidified the liberal ideal of "equality before the law" in a way that made an abstract principle into a tangible reality for every adult Canadian.[144] Wilfrid Laurier who served 1896–1911 as the Seventh Prime Minister of Canada felt Canada was on the verge of becoming a world power, and declared that the 20th century would "belong to Canada"[145]
The Alaska boundary dispute, simmering since the Alaska purchase of 1867, became critical when gold was discovered in the Yukon during the late 1890s, with the U.S. controlling all the possible ports of entry. Canada argued its boundary included the port of Skagway. The dispute went to arbitration in 1903, but the British delegate sided with the Americans, angering Canadians who felt the British had betrayed Canadian interests to curry favour with the U.S.[146]
In 1905 Saskatchewan and Alberta were admitted as provinces. They were growing rapidly thanks to abundant wheat crops that attracted immigration to the plains by Ukrainians and Northern and Central Europeans and by settlers from the United States, Britain and eastern Canada.[147][148]
Laurier signed a reciprocity treaty with the U.S. that would lower tariffs in both directions. Conservatives under Robert Borden denounced it, saying it would integrate Canada's economy into that of the U.S. and loosen ties with Britain. The Conservative party won the 1911 Canadian federal election.[149]
Guerras mundiales y años de entreguerras (1914-1945)
First World War
The Canadian Forces and civilian participation in the First World War helped to foster a sense of British-Canadian nationhood. The highpoints of Canadian military achievement during the First World War came during the Somme, Vimy, Passchendaele battles and what later became known as "Canada's Hundred Days".[150] The reputation Canadian troops earned, along with the success of Canadian flying aces including William George Barker and Billy Bishop, helped to give the nation a new sense of identity.[151] The War Office in 1922 reported approximately 67,000 killed and 173,000 wounded during the war.[152] This excludes civilian deaths in war-time incidents like the Halifax Explosion.[152]
Support for Great Britain during the First World War caused a major political crisis over conscription, with Francophones, mainly from Quebec, rejecting national policies.[153] During the crisis, large numbers of enemy aliens (especially Ukrainians and Germans) were put under government controls.[154] The Liberal party was deeply split, with most of its Anglophone leaders joining the unionist government headed by Prime Minister Robert Borden, the leader of the Conservative party.[155] The Liberals regained their influence after the war under the leadership of William Lyon Mackenzie King, who served as prime minister with three separate terms between 1921 and 1949.[156]
Women's suffrage
When Canada was founded, women could not vote in federal elections. Women did have a local vote in some provinces, as in Canada West from 1850, where women owning land could vote for school trustees. By 1900 other provinces adopted similar provisions, and in 1916 Manitoba took the lead in extending full women's suffrage.[157] Simultaneously suffragists gave strong support to the prohibition movement, especially in Ontario and the Western provinces.[158][159]
The Military Voters Act of 1917 gave the vote to British women who were war widows or had sons or husbands serving overseas. Unionists Prime Minister Borden pledged himself during the 1917 campaign to equal suffrage for women. After his landslide victory, he introduced a bill in 1918 for extending the franchise to women. This passed without division, but did not apply to Quebec provincial and municipal elections. The women of Quebec gained full suffrage in 1940. The first woman elected to Parliament was Agnes Macphail of Ontario in 1921.[160]
1920s
On the world stage
Convinced that Canada had proven itself on the battlefields of Europe, Prime Minister Sir Robert Borden demanded that it have a separate seat at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. This was initially opposed not only by Britain but also by the United States, which saw such a delegation as an extra British vote. Borden responded by pointing out that since Canada had lost nearly 60,000 men, a far larger proportion of its men, its right to equal status as a nation had been consecrated on the battlefield. British Prime Minister David Lloyd George eventually relented, and convinced the reluctant Americans to accept the presence of delegations from Canada, India, Australia, Newfoundland, New Zealand, and South Africa. These also received their own seats in the League of Nations.[161] Canada asked for neither reparations nor mandates. It played only a modest role at Paris, but just having a seat was a matter of pride. It was cautiously optimistic about the new League of Nations, in which it played an active and independent role.[162]
In 1922 British Prime Minister David Lloyd George appealed repeatedly for Canadian support in the Chanak crisis, in which a war threatened between Britain and Turkey. Canada refused, leading to the fall of Lloyd George.[163] The Department of External Affairs, which had been founded in 1909, was expanded and promoted Canadian autonomy as Canada reduced its reliance on British diplomats and used its own foreign service.[164] Thus began the careers of such important diplomats as Norman Robertson and Hume Wrong, and future prime minister Lester Pearson.[165]
In the 1920s, Canada set up a successful wheat marketing "pool" to keep prices high. Canada negotiated with the United States, Australia, and the Soviet Union to expand the pool, but the effort failed when the Great Depression caused distrust and low prices.[166]
With prohibition underway in the United States, smugglers bought large quantities of Canadian liquor. Both the Canadian distillers and the U.S. State Department put heavy pressure on the Customs and Excise Department to loosen or tighten border controls. Liquor interests paid off corrupt Canadian border officials until the U.S. finally ended prohibition in 1933.[167]
Domestic affairs
In 1921 to 1926, William Lyon Mackenzie King's Liberal government pursued a conservative domestic policy with the object of lowering wartime taxes and, especially, cooling wartime ethnic tensions, as well as defusing postwar labour conflicts. The Progressives refused to join the government but did help the Liberals defeat non-confidence motions. King faced a delicate balancing act of reducing tariffs enough to please the Prairie-based Progressives, but not too much to alienate his vital support in industrial Ontario and Quebec, which needed tariffs to compete with American imports. King and Conservative leader Arthur Meighen sparred constantly and bitterly in Commons debates.[168] The Progressives gradually weakened. Their effective and passionate leader, Thomas Crerar, resigned to return to his grain business, and was replaced by the more placid Robert Forke. The socialist reformer J. S. Woodsworth gradually gained influence and power among the Progressives, and he reached an accommodation with King on policy matters.[169]
In 1926 Prime Minister Mackenzie King advised the Governor General, Lord Byng, to dissolve Parliament and call another election, but Byng refused, the only time that the Governor General has exercised such a power. Instead, Byng called upon Meighen, the Conservative Party leader, to form a government.[170] Meighen attempted to do so, but was unable to obtain a majority in the Commons and he, too, advised dissolution, which this time was accepted. The episode, the King–Byng Affair, marks a constitutional crisis that was resolved by a new tradition of complete non-interference in Canadian political affairs on the part of the British government.[171]
Great Depression
Canada was hit hard by the worldwide Great Depression that began in 1929. Between 1929 and 1933, the gross national product dropped 40% (compared to 37% in the US). Unemployment reached 27% at the depth of the Depression in 1933.[172] Many businesses closed, as corporate profits of $396 million in 1929 turned into losses of $98 million in 1933. Canadian exports shrank by 50% from 1929 to 1933. Construction all but stopped (down 82%, 1929–33), and wholesale prices dropped 30%. Wheat prices plunged from 78c per bushel (1928 crop) to 29c in 1932.[172]
Urban unemployment nationwide was 19%; Toronto's rate was 17%, according to the census of 1931. Farmers who stayed on their farms were not considered unemployed.[173] By 1933, 30% of the labour force was out of work, and one-fifth of the population became dependent on government assistance. Wages fell as did prices. Worst hit were areas dependent on primary industries such as farming, mining and logging, as prices fell and there were few alternative jobs. Most families had moderate losses and little hardship, though they too became pessimistic and their debts became heavier as prices fell. Some families saw most or all of their assets disappear, and suffered severely.[174][175]
In 1930, in the first stage of the long depression, Prime Minister Mackenzie King believed that the crisis was a temporary swing of the business cycle and that the economy would soon recover without government intervention. He refused to provide unemployment relief or federal aid to the provinces, saying that if Conservative provincial governments demanded federal dollars, he would not give them "a five cent piece."[176] His blunt wisecrack was used to defeat the Liberals in the 1930 election. The main issue was the rapid deterioration in the economy and whether the prime minister was out of touch with the hardships of ordinary people.[177][178] The winner of the 1930 election was Richard Bedford Bennett and the Conservatives. Bennett had promised high tariffs and large-scale spending, but as deficits increased, he became wary and cut back severely on Federal spending. With falling support and the depression getting only worse, Bennett attempted to introduce policies based on the New Deal of President Franklin D. Roosevelt (FDR) in the United States, but he got little passed. Bennett's government became a focus of popular discontent. For example, auto owners saved on gasoline by using horses to pull their cars, dubbing them Bennett Buggies. The Conservative failure to restore prosperity led to the return of Mackenzie King's Liberals in the 1935 election.[179]
In 1935, the Liberals used the slogan "King or Chaos" to win a landslide in the 1935 election.[180] Promising a much-desired trade treaty with the U.S., the Mackenzie King government passed the 1935 Reciprocal Trade Agreement. It marked the turning point in Canadian-American economic relations, reversing the disastrous trade war of 1930–31, lowering tariffs and yielding a dramatic increase in trade.[181]
The worst of the Depression had passed by 1935, as Ottawa launched relief programs such as the National Housing Act and National Employment Commission. The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation became a crown corporation in 1936. Trans-Canada Airlines (the precursor to Air Canada) was formed in 1937, as was the National Film Board of Canada in 1939. In 1938, Parliament transformed the Bank of Canada from a private entity to a crown corporation.[182]
One political response was a highly restrictive immigration policy and a rise in nativism.[183]
Times were especially hard in western Canada, where a full recovery did not occur until the Second World War began in 1939. One response was the creation of new political parties such as the Social Credit movement and the Cooperative Commonwealth Federation, as well as popular protest in the form of the On-to-Ottawa Trek.[184]
Statute of Westminster
Following the Balfour Declaration of 1926, the British Parliament passed the Statute of Westminster in 1931 which acknowledged Canada as coequal with the United Kingdom and the other Commonwealth realms. It was a crucial step in the development of Canada as a separate state in that it provided for nearly complete legislative autonomy from the Parliament of the United Kingdom.[185] Although the United Kingdom retained formal authority over certain Canadian constitutional changes, it relinquished this authority with the passing of the Canada Act 1982 which was the final step in achieving full sovereignty.
Second World War
Canada's involvement in the Second World War began when Canada declared war on Nazi Germany on September 10, 1939, delaying it one week after Britain acted to symbolically demonstrate independence. Canada played a major role in supplying food, raw materials, munitions and money to the hard-pressed British economy, training airmen for the Commonwealth, guarding the western half of the North Atlantic Ocean against German U-boats, and providing combat troops for the invasions of Italy, France and Germany in 1943–45.
Of a population of approximately 11.5 million, 1.1 million Canadians served in the armed forces in the Second World War.[186] Many thousands more served with the Canadian Merchant Navy.[187] In all, more than 45,000 died, and another 55,000 were wounded.[188][189] Building up the Royal Canadian Air Force was a high priority; it was kept separate from Britain's Royal Air Force. The British Commonwealth Air Training Plan Agreement, signed in December 1939, bound Canada, Britain, New Zealand, and Australia to a program that eventually trained half the airmen from those four nations in the Second World War.[190]
The Battle of the Atlantic began immediately, and from 1943 to 1945 was led by Leonard W. Murray, from Nova Scotia. German U-boats operated in Canadian and Newfoundland waters throughout the war, sinking many naval and merchant vessels.[191] The Canadian army was involved in the failed defence of Hong Kong, the unsuccessful Dieppe Raid in August 1942, the Allied invasion of Italy, and the highly successful invasion of France and the Netherlands in 1944–45.[192]
On the political side, Mackenzie King rejected any notion of a government of national unity.[193] The 1940 federal election was held as normally scheduled, producing another majority for the Liberals. The Conscription Crisis of 1944 greatly affected unity between French and English-speaking Canadians, though was not as politically intrusive as that of the First World War.[194] During the war, Canada became more closely linked to the U.S. The Americans took virtual control of Yukon in order to build the Alaska Highway, and were a major presence in the British colony of Newfoundland with major airbases.[195] After the start of the war with Japan in December 1941, the government, in cooperation with the U.S., began the Japanese-Canadian internment, which sent 22,000 British Columbia residents of Japanese descent to relocation camps far from the coast. The reason was intense public demand for removal and fears of espionage or sabotage.[196] The government ignored reports from the RCMP and Canadian military that most of the Japanese were law-abiding and not a threat.[197]
Era de la posguerra (1945-1960)
Prosperity returned to Canada during the Second World War and continued in the following years, with the development of universal health care, old-age pensions, and veterans' pensions.[198][199] The financial crisis of the Great Depression had led the Dominion of Newfoundland to relinquish responsible government in 1934 and become a crown colony ruled by a British governor.[200] In 1948, the British government gave voters three Newfoundland Referendum choices: remaining a crown colony, returning to Dominion status (that is, independence), or joining Canada. Joining the United States was not made an option. After bitter debate Newfoundlanders voted to join Canada in 1949 as a province.[201]
The foreign policy of Canada during the Cold War was closely tied to that of the United States. Canada was a founding member of NATO (which Canada wanted to be a transatlantic economic and political union as well[202]). In 1950, Canada sent combat troops to Korea during the Korean War as part of the United Nations forces. The federal government's desire to assert its territorial claims in the Arctic during the Cold War manifested with the High Arctic relocation, in which Inuit were moved from Nunavik (the northern third of Quebec) to barren Cornwallis Island;[203] this project was later the subject of a long investigation by the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples.[204]
In 1956, the United Nations responded to the Suez Crisis by convening a United Nations Emergency Force to supervise the withdrawal of invading forces. The peacekeeping force was initially conceptualized by Secretary of External Affairs and future Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson.[205] Pearson was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1957 for his work in establishing the peacekeeping operation.[205]
Throughout the mid-1950s, prime ministers Louis St. Laurent and his successor John Diefenbaker attempted to create a new, highly advanced jet fighter, the Avro Arrow.[206] The controversial aircraft was cancelled by Diefenbaker in 1959. Diefenbaker instead purchased the BOMARC missile defence system and American aircraft. In 1958 Canada established (with the United States) the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD).[207]
There were voices on both left and right that warned against being too close to the United States. Few Canadians listened before 1957. Instead, there was wide consensus on foreign and defence policies 1948 to 1957. Bothwell, Drummond and English state:
- That support was remarkably uniform geographically and racially, both coast to coast and among French and English. From the CCF on the left to the Social Credit on the right, the political parties agreed that NATO was a good thing, and communism a bad thing, that a close association with Europe was desirable, and that the Commonwealth embodied a glorious past. [208]
However, the consensus did not last. By 1957 the Suez crisis alienated Canada from both Britain and France; politicians distrusted American leadership, businessmen questioned American financial investments; and intellectuals ridiculed the values of American television and Hollywood offerings that all Canadians watched. "Public support for Canada's foreign policy came unstuck. Foreign policy, from being a winning issue for the Liberals, was fast becoming a losing one."[208]
1960-1981
In the 1960s, what became known as the Quiet Revolution took place in Quebec, overthrowing the old establishment which centred on the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Quebec and led to modernizing of the economy and society.[209] Québécois nationalists demanded independence, and tensions rose until violence erupted during the 1970 October Crisis. John Saywell says, "The two kidnappings and the murder of Pierre Laporte were the biggest domestic news stories in Canada's history"[210][211] In 1976 the Parti Québécois was elected to power in Quebec, with a nationalist vision that included securing French linguistic rights in the province and the pursuit of some form of sovereignty for Quebec. This culminated in the 1980 referendum in Quebec on the question of sovereignty-association, which was turned down by 59% of the voters.[211]
In 1965, Canada adopted the maple leaf flag, although not without considerable debate and misgivings among large number of English Canadians.[212] The World's Fair titled Expo 67 came to Montreal, coinciding with the Canadian Centennial that year. The fair opened April 28, 1967, with the theme "Man and his World" and became the best attended of all BIE-sanctioned world expositions until that time.[213]
Legislative restrictions on Canadian immigration that had favoured British and other European immigrants were amended in the 1960s, opening the doors to immigrants from all parts of the world.[214] While the 1950s had seen high levels of immigration from Britain, Ireland, Italy, and northern continental Europe, by the 1970s immigrants increasingly came from India, China, Vietnam, Jamaica and Haiti.[215] Immigrants of all backgrounds tended to settle in the major urban centres, particularly Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver.[215]
During his long tenure in the office (1968–79, 1980–84), Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau made social and cultural change his political goals, including the pursuit of official bilingualism in Canada and plans for significant constitutional change.[216] The west, particularly the petroleum-producing provinces like Alberta, opposed many of the policies emanating from central Canada, with the National Energy Program creating considerable antagonism and growing western alienation.[217] Multiculturalism in Canada was adopted as the official policy of the Canadian government during the prime ministership of Pierre Trudeau.[218]
1982–1992
In 1981, the Canadian House of Commons and Senate passed a resolution requesting that the British Parliament enact a package of constitutional amendments which would end the last powers of the British Parliament to legislate for Canada and would create an entirely Canadian process for constitutional amendments. The resolution set out the text of the proposed Canada Act, which also included the text of the Constitution Act, 1982.[219] The British Parliament duly passed the Canada Act 1982, the Queen granting Royal Assent on March 29, 1982, 115 years to the day since Queen Victoria granted Royal Assent to the Constitution Act, 1867. On April 17, 1982, the Queen signed the Proclamation on the grounds of Parliament Hill in Ottawa bringing the Constitution Act, 1982 into force, thus patriating the Constitution of Canada.[220] Previously, the main portions of the constitution had existed only as an act passed of the British parliament, though under the terms of the Statute of Westminster, it could not be altered without Canadian consent.[221] Canada had established complete sovereignty as an independent country, with the Queen's role as monarch of Canada separate from her role as the British monarch or the monarch of any of the other Commonwealth realms.[222]
In addition to the enactment of a Canadian amending formulas, the Constitution Act, 1982 enacted the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. The Charter is a constitutionally entrenched bill of rights which applies to both the federal government and the provincial governments, unlike the earlier Canadian Bill of Rights.[223] The patriation of the constitution was Trudeau's last major act as Prime Minister; he resigned in 1984.
On June 23, 1985, Air India Flight 182 was destroyed above the Atlantic Ocean by a bomb on board exploding; all 329 on board were killed, of whom 280 were Canadian citizens.[224] The Air India attack is the largest mass murder in Canadian history.[225]
The Progressive Conservative (PC) government of Brian Mulroney began efforts to gain Quebec's support for the Constitution Act 1982 and end western alienation. In 1987 the Meech Lake Accord talks began between the provincial and federal governments, seeking constitutional changes favourable to Quebec.[226] The failure of the Meech Lake Accord resulted in the formation of a separatist party, Bloc Québécois.[227] The constitutional reform process under Prime Minister Mulroney culminated in the failure of the Charlottetown Accord which would have recognized Quebec as a "distinct society" but was rejected in 1992 by a narrow margin.[228]
Under Brian Mulroney, relations with the United States began to grow more closely integrated. In 1986, Canada and the U.S. signed the "Acid Rain Treaty" to reduce acid rain. In 1989, the federal government adopted the Free Trade Agreement with the United States despite significant animosity from the Canadian public who were concerned about the economic and cultural impacts of close integration with the United States.[229] On July 11, 1990, the Oka Crisis land dispute began between the Mohawk people of Kanesatake and the adjoining town of Oka, Quebec.[230] The dispute was the first of a number of well-publicized conflicts between First Nations and the Canadian government in the late 20th century. In August 1990, Canada was one of the first nations to condemn Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, and it quickly agreed to join the U.S.-led coalition. Canada deployed destroyers and later a CF-18 Hornet squadron with support personnel, as well as a field hospital to deal with casualties.[231]
Historia reciente (1992-presente)
Following Mulroney's resignation as prime minister in 1993, Kim Campbell took office and became Canada's first female prime minister.[232] Campbell remained in office for only a few months: the 1993 election saw the collapse of the Progressive Conservative Party from government to two seats, while the Quebec-based sovereigntist Bloc Québécois became the official opposition.[233] Prime Minister Jean Chrétien of the Liberals took office in November 1993 with a majority government and was re-elected with further majorities during the 1997 and 2000 elections.[234]
In 1995, the government of Quebec held a second referendum on sovereignty that was rejected by a margin of 50.6% to 49.4%.[235] In 1998, the Canadian Supreme Court ruled unilateral secession by a province to be unconstitutional, and Parliament passed the Clarity Act outlining the terms of a negotiated departure.[235] Environmental issues increased in importance in Canada during this period, resulting in the signing of the Kyoto Accord on climate change by Canada's Liberal government in 2002. The accord was in 2007 nullified by Prime Minister Stephen Harper's Conservative government, which proposed a "made-in-Canada" solution to climate change.[236]
Canada became the fourth country in the world and the first country in the Americas to legalize same-sex marriage nationwide with the enactment of the Civil Marriage Act in 2005.[237] Court decisions, starting in 2003, had already legalized same-sex marriage in eight out of ten provinces and one of three territories. Before the passage of the Act, more than 3,000 same-sex couples had married in these areas.[238]
The Canadian Alliance and PC Party merged into the Conservative Party of Canada in 2003, ending a 13-year division of the conservative vote. The party was elected twice as a minority government under the leadership of Stephen Harper in the 2006 federal election and 2008 federal election.[234] Harper's Conservative Party won a majority in the 2011 federal election with the New Democratic Party forming the Official Opposition for the first time.[239]
Under Harper, Canada and the United States continued to integrate state and provincial agencies to strengthen security along the Canada–United States border through the Western Hemisphere Travel Initiative.[240] From 2002 to 2011, Canada was involved in the Afghanistan War as part of the U.S. stabilization force and the NATO-commanded International Security Assistance Force. In July 2010, the largest purchase in Canadian military history, totalling CA$9 billion for the acquisition of 65 F-35 fighters, was announced by the federal government.[241] Canada is one of several nations that assisted in the development of the F-35 and has invested over CA$168 million in the program.[242]
In 2008, the Government of Canada formally apologized to the indigenous peoples of Canada for the residential school system and the damage it caused.[243] The government set up the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada that year to document the damage caused by the residential school system and the reconciliation needed to proceed into the future. It provided a "call to action" report in 2015.[244]
On October 19, 2015, Stephen Harper's Conservatives were defeated by a newly resurgent Liberal party under the leadership of Justin Trudeau and which had been reduced to third party status in the 2011 elections.[245]
Multiculturalism (cultural and ethnic diversity) has been emphasized in recent decades. Ambrose and Mudde conclude that: "Canada's unique multiculturalism policy ... which is based on a combination of selective immigration, comprehensive integration, and strong state repression of dissent on these policies. This unique blend of policies has led to a relatively low level of opposition to multiculturalism".[246][247]
Historiografía
The Conquest of New France has always been a central and contested theme of Canadian memory. Cornelius Jaenen argues:
- The Conquest has remained a difficult subject for French-Canadian historians because it can be viewed either as economically and ideologically disastrous or as a providential intervention to enable Canadians to maintain their language and religion under British rule. For virtually all Anglophone historians it was a victory for British military, political, and economic superiority which would eventually only benefit the conquered. [248]
Historians of the 1950s tried to explain the economic inferiority of the French-Canadians by arguing that the Conquest:
destroyed an integral society and decapitated the commercial class; leadership of the conquered people fell to the Church; and, because commercial activity came to be monopolized by British merchants, national survival concentrated on agriculture.[249]
At the other pole, are those Francophone historians who see the positive benefit of enabling the preservation of language, and religion and traditional customs under British rule. French Canadian debates have escalated since the 1960s, as the Conquest is seen as a pivotal moment in the history of Québec's nationalism. Historian Jocelyn Létourneau suggested in the 21st century, "1759 does not belong primarily to a past that we might wish to study and understand, but, rather, to a present and a future that we might wish to shape and control."[250]
Anglophone historians, on the other hand, portray the Conquest as a victory for British military, political and economic superiority that was a permanent benefit to the French.[251]
Allan Greer argues that Whig history was once the dominant style of scholars. He says the:
- interpretive schemes that dominated Canadian historical writing through the middle decades of the twentieth century were built on the assumption that history had a discernible direction and flow. Canada was moving towards a goal in the nineteenth century; whether this endpoint was the construction of a transcontinental, commercial, and political union, the development of parliamentary government, or the preservation and resurrection of French Canada, it was certainly a Good Thing. Thus the rebels of 1837 were quite literally on the wrong track. They lost because they had to lose; they were not simply overwhelmed by superior force, they were justly chastised by the God of History. [252]
Ver también
National historic significance
- Events of National Historic Significance
- National Historic Sites of Canada
- Persons of National Historic Significance
History by topic
- Constitutional history of Canada
- Economic history of Canada
- History of Canadian newspapers
- History of Canadian sports
- History of cities in Canada
- History of Education in Canada
- History of medicine in Canada
- History of rail transport in Canada
- Social history of Canada
Academia
- Canadian Journal of History
- Canadian Historical Review
- Journal of Canadian Studies
Media
- Heritage Minutes
- History Trek, Canadian History web portal designed for children
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Otras lecturas
- For an annotated bibliography and evaluation of major books, see Canada: A Reader's Guide, (2nd ed., 2000) by J. André Senécal, online, 91pp.
- Black, Conrad. Rise to Greatness: The History of Canada From the Vikings to the Present (2014), 1120pp excerpt
- Brown, Craig, ed. Illustrated History of Canada (McGill-Queen's Press-MQUP, 2012), Chapters by experts
- Bumsted, J.M. The Peoples of Canada: A Pre-Confederation History; The Peoples of Canada: A Post-Confederation History (2 vol. 2014), University textbook
- Chronicles of Canada Series (32 vol. 1915–1916) edited by G. M. Wrong and H. H. Langton online detailed popular history
- Conrad, Margaret, Alvin Finkel and Donald Fyson. Canada: A History (Toronto: Pearson, 2012)
- Crowley, Terence Allan; Crowley, Terry; Murphy, Rae (1993). The Essentials of Canadian History: Pre-colonization to 1867—the Beginning of a Nation. Research & Education Assoc. ISBN 978-0-7386-7205-2.
- Felske, Lorry William; Rasporich, Beverly Jean (2004). Challenging Frontiers: the Canadian West. University of Calgary Press. ISBN 978-1-55238-140-3.
- Granatstein, J. L., and Dean F. Oliver, eds. The Oxford Companion to Canadian Military History, (2011) online review.
- Francis, R. D.; Jones, Richard; Smith, Donald B. (2009). Journeys: A History of Canada. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-17-644244-6.
- Lower, Arthur R. M. (1958). Canadians in the Making: A Social History of Canada. Longmans, Green.
- McNaught, Kenneth. The Penguin History of Canada (Penguin books, 1988)
- Morton, Desmond (2001). A short history of Canada. McClelland & Stewart Limited. ISBN 978-0-7710-6509-5.
- Morton, Desmond (1999). A Military History of Canada: from Champlain to Kosovo. McClelland & Stewart. ISBN 9780771065149.
- Norrie, Kenneth, Douglas Owram and J.C. Herbert Emery. (2002) A History of the Canadian Economy (4th ed. 2007)
- Riendeau, Roger E. (2007). A Brief History of Canada. Infobase Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4381-0822-3.
Scholarly article collections
- Bumsted, J. M. and Len Keffert, eds. Interpreting Canada's Past (2 vol. 2011)
- Conrad, Margaret and Alvin Finkel, eds. Nation and Society: Readings in Pre-Confederation Canadian History; Nation and Society: Readings in Post-Confederation Canadian History (2nd ed. 2008)
- Francis, R. Douglas and Donald B Smith, eds. Readings in Canadian History (7th ed. 2006)
Primary sources and statistics
- Bliss, J.W.M. Canadian history in documents, 1763–1966 (1966), 390pp online free
- Crowe, Harry S. et al. eds A Source-Book of Canadian History: Selected Documents and Personal Papers (1964) 508pp online
- Kennedy, W.P.M., ed. (1918). Documents of the Canadian Constitution, 1759–1915. Oxford UP.; 707pp
- Reid, J.H. Stewart; et al., eds. (1964). A Source-book of Canadian History: Selected Documents and Personal Papers. Longmans Canada.; 484pp; primary sources on more than 200 topics
- Talman, James J. and Louis L. Snyder, eds. Basic Documents in Canadian History (1959) online 192 pp
- Thorner, Thomas ed. "A few acres of snow" : documents in pre-confederation Canadian history (2nd ed. 2003) online free to borrow
- Thorner, Thomas ed. A country nourished on self-doubt : documents in post-confederation Canadian history (2nd ed 2003) online free
- Urquhart, Malcolm Charles and F.H. Leacy, eds. Historical statistics of Canada (2nd ed. Ottawa: Statistics Canada, 1983). 800 p. ISBN 0-660-11259-0
Historiography
- Berger, Carl. Writing Canadian History: Aspects of English Canadian Historical Writing since 1900 (2nd ed. 1986), 364pp evaluates the work of most of the leading 20th century historians of Canada.
- Careless, J. M. S. "Canadian Nationalism — Immature or Obsolete?" Report of the Annual Meeting of the Canadian Historical Association / Rapports annuels de la Société historique du Canada (1954) 33#1 pp: 12–19. online
- McKercher, Asa, and Philip Van Huizen, eds. Undiplomatic History: The New Study of Canada and the World (2019) excerpt.
- Muise D. A. ed. A Reader's Guide to Canadian History: 1, Beginnings to Confederation (1982); (1982) Topical articles by leading scholars
- Granatstein J.L. and Paul Stevens, ed. A Reader's Guide to Canadian History: vol 2: Confederation to the present (1982), Topical articles by leading scholars
- Taylor, Martin Brook; Owram, Douglas (1994). Canadian History: A Reader's Guide: Beginnings to Confederation. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-6826-2.; essays by experts evaluate the scholarly literature
- Taylor, Martin Brook; Owram, Douglas (1994). Canadian history. 2. Confederation to the present. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-7676-2.; essays by experts evaluate the scholarly literature
- Rich, E. E. "Canadian History." Historical Journal 14#4 (1971): 827–52. online.
enlaces externos
- The Canadian Encyclopedia
- National Historic Sites of Canada
- The Dictionary of Canadian Biography
- Canadian Studies – Guide to the Sources
- The Quebec History encyclopedia by Marianopolis College
- History of Canada at Curlie
- The Historica-Dominion Institute, includes Heritage Minutes
- H-CANADA, daily academic discussion email list
- Canadian History & Knowledge – Association for Canadian Studies
- Baldwin Collection of Canadiana at Toronto Public Library