El Junkers Ju 87 o Stuka (de Sturzkampfflugzeug , " bombardero en picado ") era un bombardero en picado y un avión de ataque a tierra alemán . Diseñado por Hermann Pohlmann , que voló por primera vez en 1935. El Ju 87 hizo su debut en combate en 1937 con la Luftwaffe 's Legión Cóndor durante la Guerra Civil española y sirvió a las fuerzas del Eje en la Segunda Guerra Mundial .
Ju 87 | |
---|---|
Ju 87D's en octubre de 1943 | |
Papel | Bomba de buceo |
origen nacional | Alemania nazi |
Fabricante | Junkers |
Primer vuelo | 17 de septiembre de 1935 |
Introducción | 1936 |
Retirado | 1945 |
Estado | Retirado |
Usuarios primarios | Luftwaffe |
Número construido | 6.000 [a] |
El avión es fácilmente reconocible por sus alas de gaviota invertidas y su tren de aterrizaje fijo . Sobre los bordes de ataque de sus patas de engranaje principal carenadas estaban montadas las sirenas aulladores Jericho-Trompete (trompeta de Jericó) , convirtiéndose en el símbolo de propaganda del poder aéreo alemán y las llamadas victorias Blitzkrieg de 1939-1942. El diseño del Stuka incluye varias innovaciones, incluyendo pull-up automático de frenos de buceo bajo las dos alas para asegurar que la aeronave se recuperó de su inmersión ataque, incluso si el piloto perdió el conocimiento de las altas fuerzas g .
El Ju 87 operó con considerable éxito en apoyo aéreo cercano y anti-envío al estallar la Segunda Guerra Mundial. Lideró asaltos aéreos en la invasión de Polonia en septiembre de 1939. Los Stukas fueron fundamentales para la rápida conquista de Noruega , los Países Bajos , Bélgica y Francia en 1940. Aunque robusto, preciso y muy eficaz contra objetivos terrestres, el Stuka fue, como muchos otros bombarderos en picado de la época, vulnerables a los aviones de combate. Durante la Batalla de Gran Bretaña , su falta de maniobrabilidad, velocidad y armamento defensivo significó que requería una escolta de caza pesada para operar de manera efectiva.
Después de la Batalla de Inglaterra, el Stuka se utilizó en la Campaña de los Balcanes , los teatros africanos y mediterráneos y las primeras etapas del Frente Oriental , donde se utilizó para apoyo terrestre general, como un eficaz avión antitanque especializado y en un anti -papel de envío. Una vez que la Luftwaffe perdió la superioridad aérea, el Stuka se convirtió en un objetivo fácil para los aviones de combate enemigos. Se produjo hasta 1944 a falta de un mejor reemplazo. En 1945, las versiones de ataque terrestre del Focke-Wulf Fw 190 habían reemplazado en gran medida al Ju 87, pero permaneció en servicio hasta el final de la guerra.
Se estima que se fabricaron 6.500 Ju 87 de todas las versiones entre 1936 y agosto de 1944.
El Oberst Hans-Ulrich Rudel fue el piloto de Stuka más exitoso y el militar alemán más condecorado de la Segunda Guerra Mundial.
Desarrollo
Diseño temprano
El diseñador principal del Ju 87, Hermann Pohlmann , opinó que cualquier diseño de bombardero en picado debía ser simple y robusto. [1] Esto condujo a muchas innovaciones técnicas, como el descarte del tren de aterrizaje retráctil en favor de una de las características distintivas del Stuka, su tren de aterrizaje fijo y "escupido". Pohlmann continuó desarrollando y ampliando sus ideas y las de Dipl Ing Karl Plauth (Plauth murió en un accidente aéreo en noviembre de 1927), y produjo el Ju A 48 que se sometió a pruebas el 29 de septiembre de 1928. La versión militar del Ju A 48 fue designado Ju K 47 . [1]
Después de que los nazis llegaron al poder, se le dio prioridad al diseño. A pesar de la competencia inicial del Henschel Hs 123 , el Reichsluftfahrtministerium (RLM, el ministerio de aviación alemán) recurrió a los diseños de Herman Pohlmann de Junkers y co-diseñador del K 47, Karl Plauth. Durante las pruebas con el K 47 en 1932, se introdujeron los estabilizadores verticales dobles para dar al artillero trasero un mejor campo de tiro . La característica principal, y lo que iba a ser la más distintiva, del Ju 87 eran sus alas de gaviota invertidas de doble mástil . [2] Después de la muerte de Plauth, Pohlmann continuó el desarrollo del bombardero en picado Junkers. El Ju A 48 con registro D-ITOR, originalmente estaba equipado con un motor BMW 132 , que producía 450 kW (600 hp ). La máquina también estaba equipada con frenos de inmersión para las pruebas de inmersión. La aeronave recibió una buena evaluación y "exhibió muy buenas características de vuelo". [1]
Ernst Udet tomó un gusto inmediato por el concepto de bombardeo en picado después de volar el Curtiss F11C Goshawk . Cuando Walther Wever y Robert Ritter von Greim fueron invitados a ver a Udet realizar un vuelo de prueba en mayo de 1934 en el campo de tiro de artillería de Jüterbog, surgieron dudas sobre la capacidad del bombardero en picado. Udet comenzó su inmersión a 1000 m (3300 pies) y lanzó sus bombas de 1 kg (2,2 lb) a 100 m (330 pies), apenas recuperándose y saliendo de la inmersión. [3] El jefe de la Oficina de Comando de la Luftwaffe , Walther Wever, y el Secretario de Estado de Aviación Erhard Milch , temían que no se pudiera esperar un nerviosismo y una habilidad de tan alto nivel de los "pilotos promedio" de la Luftwaffe . [3] Sin embargo, el desarrollo continuó en Junkers. [3] La "creciente historia de amor" de Udet con el bombardero en picado lo llevó a la vanguardia del desarrollo de la aviación alemana. [4] Udet llegó a defender que todos los bombarderos medianos deberían tener capacidad de bombardeo en picado, [5] que inicialmente condenó al único diseño de bombardero pesado estratégico dedicado para entrar en el servicio de primera línea alemán durante los años de guerra: el 30- Metros de envergadura He 177A, para tener un diseño de fuselaje (debido a que Udet examinó los detalles de diseño en noviembre de 1937) que podría realizar misiones de bombardeo en picado de "ángulo medio", hasta que Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring eximió al He 177A, el único bombardero pesado operativo de Alemania , Septiembre de 1942 de recibir la tarea de un perfil de misión tan desigual para su gran estructura de avión. [6]
Evolución
El diseño del Ju 87 había comenzado en 1933 como parte del Sturzbomber-Programm . El Ju 87 iba a ser propulsado por el motor británico Rolls-Royce Kestrel . Junkers encargó diez motores el 19 de abril de 1934 por 20.514 libras esterlinas, dos chelines y seis peniques. [7] El primer prototipo Ju 87 fue construido por AB Flygindustri El c 4921 (menos piezas no esenciales) despegó para su vuelo inaugural el 17 de septiembre de 1935. Posteriormente, la aeronave recibió el registro D-UBYR. [8] El informe de vuelo, de Hauptmann Willy Neuenhofen , indicaba que el único problema era el pequeño radiador, que provocaba que el motor se sobrecaliente. [9]
en Suecia y traído en secreto a Alemania a finales de 1934. Debía haberse completado en abril de 1935, pero, debido a la resistencia inadecuada del fuselaje, la construcción tomó hasta octubre de 1935. El Ju 87 V1 W.Nr.El Ju 87 V1, propulsado por un motor Rolls-Royce Kestrel V12 de cilindro refrigerado por líquido y con doble cola, se estrelló el 24 de enero de 1936 en Kleutsch, cerca de Dresde , matando al piloto de pruebas jefe de Junkers, Willy Neuenhofen, y a su ingeniero, Heinrich. Kreft. [10] Las aletas gemelas cuadradas y los timones resultaron demasiado débiles; colapsaron y la aeronave se estrelló después de que entró en un giro invertido durante la prueba de la presión dinámica terminal en una inmersión. [11] El choque provocó un cambio a un diseño de cola de estabilizador vertical único . Para resistir fuerzas fuertes durante una inmersión, se colocó una placa pesada, junto con soportes remachados al marco y más largos , al fuselaje. Otras adiciones tempranas incluyeron la instalación de frenos de inmersión hidráulicos que se colocaron debajo del borde de ataque y podían girar 90 °. [12]
El RLM todavía no estaba interesado en el Ju 87 y no le impresionó que se basara en un motor británico. A finales de 1935, Junkers sugirió instalar un motor V-12 invertido DB 600 , con la variante final equipada con el Jumo 210 . Esto fue aceptado por el RLM como una solución provisional. La reelaboración del diseño comenzó el 1 de enero de 1936. El vuelo de prueba no pudo realizarse durante más de dos meses debido a la falta de aviones adecuados. El accidente del 24 de enero ya había destruido una máquina. El segundo prototipo también estuvo plagado de problemas de diseño. Se le quitaron sus estabilizadores gemelos y se instaló una sola aleta de cola debido a los temores sobre la estabilidad. Debido a la escasez de motores, en lugar de un DB 600, se instaló un motor BMW "Hornet". Todos estos retrasos retrasaron las pruebas hasta el 25 de febrero de 1936. [13] En marzo de 1936, el segundo prototipo, el V2, finalmente se equipó con el motor Jumo 210Aa , que un año más tarde fue reemplazado por un Jumo 210 G (W.Nr. 19310). Aunque las pruebas fueron bien y el piloto, el capitán de vuelo Hesselbach, elogió su desempeño, Wolfram von Richthofen le dijo al representante de Junkers y al ingeniero jefe de la Oficina de Construcción, Ernst Zindel, que el Ju 87 tenía pocas posibilidades de convertirse en el principal bombardero en picado de la Luftwaffe, ya que era poco poderosa en su opinión. El 9 de junio de 1936, el RLM ordenó el cese del desarrollo a favor del Heinkel He 118 , un diseño rival. Udet canceló el pedido al día siguiente y el desarrollo continuó. [14]
El 27 de julio de 1936, Udet estrelló el prototipo He 118, He 118 V1 D-UKYM. [15] Ese mismo día, Charles Lindbergh estaba visitando a Ernst Heinkel , por lo que Heinkel solo pudo comunicarse con Udet por teléfono. Según esta versión de la historia, Heinkel advirtió a Udet sobre la fragilidad de la hélice. Udet no tuvo en cuenta esto, por lo que en una inmersión, el motor se aceleró y la hélice se rompió. [16] Inmediatamente después de este incidente, Udet anunció que Stuka era el ganador del concurso de desarrollo. [15]
Refinamientos
A pesar de haber sido elegido, el diseño todavía faltaba y suscitó frecuentes críticas por parte de Wolfram von Richthofen. Las pruebas del prototipo V4 (A Ju 87 A-0) a principios de 1937 revelaron varios problemas. El Ju 87 podía despegar en 250 m (820 pies) y ascender a 1.875 m (6.152 pies) en ocho minutos con una carga de bomba de 250 kg (550 lb), y su velocidad de crucero era de 250 km / h (160 mph). Richthofen presionó por un motor más potente. [17] Según los pilotos de prueba, el Heinkel He 50 tenía una mejor tasa de aceleración y podía alejarse del área objetivo mucho más rápidamente, evitando las defensas aéreas y terrestres enemigas. Richthofen declaró que cualquier velocidad máxima por debajo de 350 km / h (220 mph) era inaceptable por esas razones. Los pilotos también se quejaron de que los instrumentos de navegación y del motor estaban mezclados y no eran fáciles de leer, especialmente en combate. A pesar de esto, los pilotos elogiaron las cualidades de manejo de la aeronave y su robusta estructura. [18]
Estos problemas debían resolverse instalando el motor DB 600, pero los retrasos en el desarrollo obligaron a instalar el motor V-12 invertido Jumo 210 D. Las pruebas de vuelo comenzaron el 14 de agosto de 1936. Las pruebas posteriores y el progreso no alcanzaron las esperanzas de Richthofen, aunque la velocidad de la máquina se aumentó a 280 km / h (170 mph) a nivel del suelo y 290 km / h (180 mph) a 1.250 m (4.100 ft), manteniendo su buena capacidad de manejo. [19]
Diseño
Diseño básico (basado en la serie B)
El Ju 87 era un monoplano en voladizo totalmente metálico de un solo motor . Tenía un tren de aterrizaje fijo y podía transportar una tripulación de dos personas. El principal material de construcción fue duraluminio y los revestimientos externos fueron de láminas de duraluminio. Las piezas que debían ser de construcción fuerte, como las aletas de las alas , estaban hechas de Pantal (una aleación de aluminio alemana que contiene titanio como elemento de endurecimiento) y sus componentes hechos de Elektron . Los pernos y las piezas que debían soportar una gran tensión estaban hechos de acero. [20]
El Ju 87 estaba equipado con escotillas desmontables y cubiertas desmontables para ayudar y facilitar el mantenimiento y la revisión. Los diseñadores evitaron soldar piezas siempre que fue posible, prefiriendo piezas moldeadas y fundidas. Los segmentos grandes del fuselaje eran intercambiables como una unidad completa, lo que aumentaba la velocidad de reparación. [20]
La estructura del avión también se subdividió en secciones para permitir el transporte por carretera o ferrocarril. Las alas eran de construcción estándar de doble ala de Junkers. Esto le dio al Ju 87 una ventaja considerable en el despegue; incluso en un ángulo poco profundo, se crearon grandes fuerzas de elevación a través del perfil aerodinámico , lo que redujo los recorridos de despegue y aterrizaje. [20]
De acuerdo con el Centro de Certificación de Aeronaves para el "Grupo de Estrés 5", el Ju 87 había alcanzado los requisitos aceptables de resistencia estructural para un bombardero en picado. Fue capaz de soportar velocidades de buceo de 600 km / h (370 mph) y una velocidad máxima de nivel de 340 km / h (210 mph) cerca del nivel del suelo, y un peso de vuelo de 4.300 kg (9.500 lb). El rendimiento en el ataque de picado se mejoró con la introducción de frenos de picado debajo de cada ala, lo que permitió que el Ju 87 mantuviera una velocidad constante y permitiera al piloto estabilizar su puntería. También evitó que la tripulación sufriera fuerzas g extremas y una alta aceleración durante la "retirada" de la inmersión. [20]
El fuselaje tenía una sección transversal ovalada y albergaba, en la mayoría de los ejemplos, un motor V-12 invertido Junkers Jumo 211 refrigerado por agua . La cabina estaba protegida del motor por un cortafuegos delante de la sección central del ala donde se ubicaban los tanques de combustible. En la parte trasera de la cabina, el mamparo estaba cubierto por una lona que la tripulación podía romper en caso de emergencia, lo que les permitía escapar hacia el fuselaje principal. El dosel se dividió en dos secciones y se unió mediante un fuerte marco de acero soldado. El dosel en sí estaba hecho de plexiglás y cada compartimento tenía su propia "capucha deslizante" para los dos miembros de la tripulación. [20]
El motor estaba montado sobre dos bastidores de soporte principales que estaban sostenidos por dos puntales tubulares . La estructura del marco se trianguló y emanó del fuselaje. Los bastidores principales se atornillaron en el cuarto superior del motor. A su vez, los marcos se unieron al cortafuegos mediante juntas universales . El cortafuegos en sí se construyó con malla de amianto con láminas durales en ambos lados. Todos los conductos que los atravesaban debían disponerse de modo que ningún gas nocivo pudiera penetrar en la cabina. [21]
El sistema de combustible comprendía dos tanques de combustible entre los largueros principal (delantero) y trasero de la sección de ala anédrica (interior) de las alas de babor y estribor, cada uno con una capacidad de 240 litros (63 gal EE.UU.). [22] Los tanques también tenían un límite predeterminado que, si se pasaba, advertiría al piloto a través de una luz roja de advertencia en la cabina. El combustible se inyectó a través de una bomba desde los tanques hasta el motor. Si esto se apaga, se puede bombear manualmente usando una bomba manual en el inducido del grifo de combustible . [21] La planta motriz se enfrió mediante un recipiente de agua de aluminio en forma de anillo de 10 litros (2,6 galones estadounidenses) situado entre la hélice y el motor. Un contenedor adicional de 20 litros (5,3 gal EE.UU.) se colocó debajo del motor. [21]
Las superficies de control funcionaron de manera muy similar a otras aeronaves, con la excepción del innovador sistema de extracción automática. Al soltar la bomba, se inició la retirada, o la recuperación automática y el ascenso, tras la desviación de los frenos de picado. El piloto podría anular el sistema ejerciendo una fuerza significativa en la columna de control y tomando el control manual. [23]
El ala era la característica más inusual. Constaba de una única sección central y dos secciones exteriores instaladas mediante cuatro juntas universales. La sección central tenía un diedro negativo grande (anédrico) y las superficies exteriores un diedro positivo. Esto creó el patrón de ala de gaviota invertida o "acodada" a lo largo del borde de ataque. La forma del ala mejoró la visibilidad del piloto en tierra y también permitió una altura del tren de aterrizaje más corta. La sección central sobresalía solo 3 m (9 pies 10 pulgadas) a cada lado. [23]
El armamento ofensivo consistía en dos ametralladoras MG 17 de 7,92 mm (0,312 pulgadas) instaladas en cada ala exterior del tren de aterrizaje, operadas por un sistema neumático mecánico desde la columna de control del piloto. El artillero trasero / operador de radio operó una ametralladora MG 15 de 7,92 mm (0,312 pulgadas) con fines defensivos. [20]
El motor y la hélice tenían controles automáticos, y un recortador automático hacía que la cola de la aeronave fuera pesada cuando el piloto se volcaba en su picado, alineando líneas rojas a 60 °, 75 ° u 80 ° en la ventana lateral de la cabina con el horizonte y apuntando al objetivo con la mira del arma fija. La bomba pesada se balanceó lejos de la hélice con muletas antes de su lanzamiento. [24]
Procedimiento de buceo
Volando a 4.600 m (15.100 pies), el piloto localizó su objetivo a través de una ventana de visión de bombas en el piso de la cabina. El piloto movió la palanca de buceo hacia atrás, limitando el "lanzamiento" de la columna de control. [25] Los frenos de inmersión se activaron automáticamente, el piloto colocó las lengüetas de compensación, redujo el acelerador y cerró las aletas del refrigerante. Luego, la aeronave giró 180 °, haciendo que la aeronave se sumergiera automáticamente. Las pestañas rojas sobresalían de las superficies superiores del ala como un indicador visual para el piloto de que, en caso de un apagón inducido por g , se activaría el sistema automático de recuperación en picado. El Stuka se zambulló en un ángulo de 60 a 90 °, manteniendo una velocidad constante de 500 a 600 km / h (311 a 373 mph) debido al despliegue del freno de picado, que aumentó la precisión del objetivo del Ju 87. [25]
Cuando la aeronave estaba razonablemente cerca del objetivo, se encendía una luz en el altímetro de contacto (un altímetro equipado con un contacto eléctrico que se activa a una altitud preestablecida) para indicar el punto de lanzamiento de la bomba, generalmente a una altura mínima de 450 m ( 1.480 pies). El piloto soltó la bomba e inició el mecanismo de extracción automática presionando una perilla en la columna de control. [25] Una muleta alargada en forma de U ubicada debajo del fuselaje hizo girar la bomba fuera del camino de la hélice, y la aeronave comenzó automáticamente una retirada de 6 g . [25] Una vez que el morro estuvo por encima del horizonte, se retiraron los frenos de picado, se abrió el acelerador y se puso la hélice para ascender. El piloto recuperó el control y reanudó el vuelo normal. Las trampillas de refrigerante tuvieron que volver a abrirse rápidamente para evitar el sobrecalentamiento. La extracción automática no fue del agrado de todos los pilotos. Helmut Mahlke dijo más tarde que él y su unidad desconectaron el sistema porque permitía al enemigo predecir el patrón de recuperación y la altura del Ju 87, lo que facilitaba que las defensas terrestres golpearan un avión. [26]
El estrés físico de la tripulación fue severo. Los seres humanos sometidos a más de 5 g en una posición sentada sufrirán una discapacidad visual en forma de un velo gris conocido por los pilotos de Stuka como "estrellas que ven". Pierden la visión mientras permanecen conscientes; después de cinco segundos, se desmayan. Los pilotos del Ju 87 experimentaron las discapacidades visuales más durante el "pull-up" de una inmersión. [27]
Eric "Winkle" Brown RN , un piloto de pruebas británico y oficial al mando del vuelo número 1426 de la RAF (el vuelo del avión enemigo capturado), probó el Ju 87 en RAE Farnborough . Dijo sobre el Stuka: "Había volado muchos bombarderos en picado y es el único en el que puedes sumergirte verdaderamente verticalmente. A veces, con los bombarderos en picado ... el picado máximo suele ser del orden de 60 grados ... Cuando vuela el Stuka, porque todo es automático, realmente está volando verticalmente ... El Stuka fue único en su clase ". [28]
Prueba de fuerza G en Dessau
Las fábricas de Junkers llevaron a cabo pruebas exhaustivas en su planta de Dessau . Se descubrió que la carga más alta que podía soportar un piloto era de 8,5 g durante tres segundos, cuando la aeronave era empujada al límite por las fuerzas centrífugas. Con menos de 4 g, no se experimentaron problemas visuales ni pérdida del conocimiento. [29] Por encima de 6 g, el 50% de los pilotos sufrió problemas visuales o gris . Con el 40%, la visión se desvaneció por completo a partir de 7,5 gy a veces se producía un apagón. [30] A pesar de esta ceguera, el piloto pudo mantener la conciencia y fue capaz de "reacciones corporales". Después de más de tres segundos, la mitad de los sujetos se desmayó. El piloto recuperaría la conciencia dos o tres segundos después de que las fuerzas centrífugas hubieran caído por debajo de los 3 gy no hubieran durado más de tres segundos. En una posición agachada, los pilotos podían soportar 7,5 gy podían permanecer funcionales durante un corto período de tiempo. En esta posición, Junkers concluyó que 2 / 3 de los pilotos podrían soportar 8 g y quizás 9 g durante tres a cinco segundos sin defectos de la visión que, en condiciones de guerra, era aceptable. [31] Durante las pruebas con el Ju 87 A-2, se probaron nuevas tecnologías para reducir los efectos de g. La cabina presurizada fue de gran importancia durante esta investigación. Las pruebas revelaron que a gran altura, incluso 2 g podrían causar la muerte en una cabina sin presión y sin la ropa adecuada. Esta nueva tecnología, junto con ropa especial y máscaras de oxígeno, fue investigada y probada. Cuando el ejército de los Estados Unidos ocupó la fábrica de Junkers en Dessau el 21 de abril de 1945, ambos quedaron impresionados e interesados en las pruebas médicas de vuelo con el Ju 87. [31]
Otros diseños
El concepto de bombardeo en picado se hizo tan popular entre los líderes de la Luftwaffe que se volvió casi obligatorio en los nuevos diseños de aviones. Los modelos posteriores de bombarderos como el Junkers Ju 88 y el Dornier Do 217 fueron equipados para bombardeos en picado. Se suponía inicialmente que el bombardero estratégico Heinkel He 177 tenía capacidad de bombardeo en picado, un requisito que contribuyó al fracaso del diseño, [32] con el requisito no rescindido hasta septiembre de 1942 por Göring. [6]
Una vez que el Stuka se volvió demasiado vulnerable a la oposición de los cazas en todos los frentes, se trabajó para desarrollar un reemplazo. Ninguno de los diseños dedicados de apoyo cercano en la mesa de dibujo progresó mucho debido al impacto de la guerra y las dificultades tecnológicas. Entonces, la Luftwaffe se decidió por el avión de combate Focke-Wulf Fw 190 , y el Fw 190F se convirtió en la versión de ataque terrestre. El Fw 190F comenzó a reemplazar al Ju 87 para misiones diurnas en 1943, pero el Ju 87 continuó usándose como asaltante nocturno hasta el final de la guerra. [33]
Variantes
Ju 87A
El segundo prototipo tenía un estabilizador vertical único rediseñado y un motor Jumo 210 A de 610 PS (601,7 hp; 448,7 kW) instalado, y más tarde el Jumo 210Da. La primera variante de la serie A, la A-0, era de construcción totalmente metálica, con una cabina cerrada debajo de un dosel bien enmarcado "invernadero"; con mástiles de radio gemelos en sus secciones de popa, montados en diagonal a ambos lados de la línea central de la forma en planta del avión y únicos en la versión -A. Para aliviar la dificultad de la producción en masa, el borde de ataque del ala se enderezó y las dos secciones del perfil aerodinámico de los alerones tenían bordes de ataque y de salida suaves. El piloto podía ajustar las pestañas del timón y el elevador en vuelo, y la cola se conectaba a los flaps de aterrizaje, que se colocaban en dos partes entre los alerones y el fuselaje. El A-0 también tenía un capó del motor más plano, lo que le dio al piloto un campo de visión mucho mejor. Para que la capota del motor se aplanara, el motor se bajó casi 0,25 m (9,8 pulgadas). El fuselaje también se bajó junto con la posición del artillero, lo que le permitió al artillero un mejor campo de tiro. [34]
El RLM ordenó siete A-0 inicialmente, pero luego aumentó el pedido a 11. A principios de 1937, el A-0 fue probado con cargas de bombas variadas. El Jumo 210A de poca potencia, como lo señaló von Richthofen, era insuficiente y fue reemplazado rápidamente por el motor Jumo 210D. [34]
El A-1 se diferenciaba del A-0 solo ligeramente. [35] Además de la instalación del Jumo 210D, el A-1 tenía dos tanques de combustible de 220 l (58 gal EE.UU.; 48 gal imp.) Integrados en el ala interior, pero no estaba blindado ni protegido. [35] El A-1 también estaba destinado a estar equipado con cuatro ametralladoras MG 17 de 7,92 mm (0,312 pulgadas) en sus alas, pero dos de ellas, una por lado, se omitieron debido a problemas de peso; el par que quedó se alimentó con un total de 500 cartuchos de munición, almacenados en los característicos "pantalones" del tren de aterrizaje de forma plana grande, reforzados con puntales transversales, que no se utilizaron en las versiones Ju 87B y posteriores. El piloto se basó en la mira del cañón Revi C 21C para los dos MG 17. El artillero tenía un solo MG 15 de 7,92 mm (0,312 pulgadas), con 14 tambores de munición, cada uno con 75 cartuchos. Esto representó un aumento de 150 asaltos en esta área sobre el Ju 87 A-0. El A-1 también estaba equipado con una hélice más grande de 3,3 m (11 pies). [35]
El Ju 87 era capaz de transportar una bomba de 500 kg (1,100 lb), pero solo si no llevaba al artillero trasero / operador de radio ya que, incluso con el Jumo 210D, el Ju 87 todavía tenía poca potencia para operaciones con más de 250 kg ( 550 lb) de carga de bomba. Todos los Ju 87 As estaban restringidos a armas de 250 kg (550 lb) (aunque durante la Guerra Civil española las misiones se llevaron a cabo sin el artillero). [36]
El Ju 87 A-2 fue actualizado con el Jumo 210Da equipado con un sobrealimentador de dos etapas . La única diferencia significativa adicional entre el A-1 y el A-2 fue la hélice de paso controlable H-PA-III . [37] A mediados de 1938, se habían producido 262 Ju 87 As, 192 de la fábrica de Junkers en Dessau y 70 más de Weser Flugzeugbau ("Weserflug" - WFG) en Lemwerder, cerca de Bremen. El nuevo y más potente modelo Ju 87B comenzó a reemplazar al Ju 87A en este momento. [38]
Prototipos [39]
- Ju 87 V1 : W.Nr 4921. Volado el 17 de septiembre de 1935
- Ju 87 V2 : W.Nr 4922, registro D-IDQR. Voló el 25 de febrero de 1936. Volvió a volar como matrícula D-UHUH el 4 de junio de 1937
- Ju 87 V3 : W.Nr 4923. Volado el 27 de marzo de 1936
- Ju 87 V4 : W.Nr 4924. Volado el 20 de junio de 1936
- Ju 87 V5 : W.Nr 4925. Volado el 14 de agosto de 1936
Variantes de producción
- Ju 87 A-0 : Diez aviones de preproducción, propulsados por un motor Jumo 210C de 640 PS (471 kW o 632 hp). [40]
- Ju 87 A-1 : Versión de producción inicial.
- Ju 87 A-2 : versión de producción equipada con un motor Jumo 210E mejorado de 680 CV (500 kW o 670 CV).
Ju 87B
La serie Ju 87 B iba a ser la primera variante producida en masa. Se produjeron un total de seis Ju 87 B-0 de preproducción, construidos a partir de fuselajes Ju 87 An. [41] La primera versión de producción fue el Ju 87 B-1, con un motor considerablemente más grande, su Jumo 211D generaba 1.200 CV (883 kW o 1.184 CV) y un fuselaje y tren de aterrizaje completamente rediseñados, reemplazando los mástiles de radio gemelos del Versión "A" con un solo mástil montado más adelante en el dosel del "invernadero", y "spats" de rueda mucho más simples y más livianos usados desde la versión -B en adelante, descartando el refuerzo transversal de los puntales del diseño del engranaje principal de la versión "A" . Este nuevo diseño fue probado nuevamente en España y, después de demostrar sus habilidades allí, la producción se incrementó a 60 por mes. Como resultado, para el estallido de la Segunda Guerra Mundial , la Luftwaffe tenía 336 Ju 87 B-1 a mano. [25]
El B-1 también estaba equipado con "trompetas Jericó", esencialmente sirenas impulsadas por hélices con un diámetro de 0,7 m (2,3 pies) [42] montadas en el borde de ataque del ala directamente delante del tren de aterrizaje, o en el borde delantero del el carenado del piñón principal fijo. Estas sirenas fueron utilizadas como armas psicológicas , siendo utilizadas para aterrorizar a las tropas terrestres cuando se acercaba una muerte inminente. Un general francés comentó sobre la efectividad de estas sirenas:
... ellos (los artilleros franceses) simplemente dejaron de disparar y cayeron al suelo, la infantería se encogió en las trincheras, aturdida por el estallido de las bombas y el chillido de los bombarderos en picado.
- El general francés Edouard Ruby, sobre los efectos de las trompetas Stuka Jericho en los soldados de tierra.
[ cita requerida ]
Los dispositivos causaron una pérdida de 20 a 25 km / h (10 a 20 mph) por arrastre y, con el tiempo, las sirenas dejaron de instalarse en muchas unidades, aunque siguieron utilizándose en diversas medidas. Como alternativa, algunas bombas se equiparon con silbatos en la aleta para producir el ruido después del lanzamiento. [43] Las trompetas fueron una sugerencia de Udet (pero algunos autores dicen que la idea se originó en Adolf Hitler ). [44]
Los Ju 87 B-2 que siguieron tuvieron algunas mejoras y se construyeron en varias variantes que incluían versiones equipadas con esquí (el B-1 también tenía esta modificación) [45] y en el otro extremo, con un kit de operación tropical llamado Ju 87 B-2 trop. La Regia Aeronáutica de Italia recibió B-2 y los llamó "Picchiatello", mientras que otros fueron para los otros miembros del Eje , incluidos Hungría, Bulgaria y Rumania. El B-2 también tenía un sistema de aceite hidráulico para cerrar las aletas del capó . Esto continuó en todos los diseños posteriores. [46]
La producción del Ju 87 B comenzó en 1937. Se construirían 89 B-1 en la fábrica de Junkers en Dessau y otros 40 en la planta de Weserflug en Lemwerder en julio de 1937. La producción la llevaría a cabo la empresa Weserflug después de abril de 1938. pero Junkers continuó produciendo Ju 87 hasta marzo de 1940. [47]
Ju 87R
También se construyó una versión de largo alcance del Ju 87B, conocida como Ju 87R, siendo la letra una abreviatura de Reichweite , "rango (operativo)". Estaban destinados principalmente a misiones anti-envío. El Ju 87R tenía un fuselaje de la serie B con un tanque de aceite adicional y líneas de combustible a las estaciones exteriores del ala para permitir el uso de dos tanques de caída bajo las alas de capacidad estandarizada de 300 litros (79 galones estadounidenses) , utilizados por una amplia variedad de Luftwaffe. aviones durante la mayor parte de la guerra. Esto aumentó la capacidad de combustible a 1.080 litros (290 gal EE.UU.) (500 litros en el tanque de combustible principal de los cuales 480 litros eran utilizables + 600 litros de los tanques de descarga). Para evitar condiciones de sobrecarga, la capacidad de transporte de bombas a menudo se limitaba a una sola bomba de 250 kg (550 lb) si la aeronave estaba completamente cargada de combustible.
El Ju 87 R-1 tenía un fuselaje B-1 con la excepción de una modificación en el fuselaje que habilitó un tanque de aceite adicional. Este se instaló para alimentar el motor debido al aumento de alcance con los tanques de combustible adicionales. [48]
El Ju 87 R-2 tenía el mismo fuselaje que el B-2 y estaba reforzado para garantizar que pudiera soportar inmersiones de 600 km / h (370 mph). Se instaló el motor en línea Jumo 211D, reemplazando al R-1s Jumo 211A. [48] Debido a un aumento en el peso total de 700 kg (1500 lb), el Ju 87 R-2 era 30 km / h (19 mph) más lento que el Ju 87 B-1 y tenía un techo de servicio más bajo. El Ju 87 R-2 tenía una ventaja de alcance aumentado de 360 km (220 millas). [47] El R-3 y el R-4 fueron las últimas variantes R desarrolladas. Solo se construyeron unos pocos. El R-3 era un remolcador experimental para planeadores y tenía un sistema de radio ampliado para que la tripulación pudiera comunicarse con la tripulación del planeador a través de la cuerda de remolque. El R-4 se diferenciaba del R-2 en el motor Jumo 211J. [49]
Prototipos conocidos [50]
- Ju 87 V6 : W.Nr 0870027. Voló el 14 de junio de 1937 (conversión de A-0 a B-0)
- Ju 87 V7 : W.Nr 0870028. Prototipo del Ju 87B, propulsado por un Jumo 211A de 1000 CV (735 kW o 986 CV). Voló el 23 de agosto de 1937 (conversión A-0 a B-0)
- Ju 87 V8 : W.Nr 4926. Volado el 11 de noviembre de 1937
- Ju 87 V9 : W.Nr 4927. Volado el 16 de febrero de 1938 como D-IELZ. Volvió a volar como WL-IELZ el 16 de octubre de 1939
- Ju 87 V15 : W.Nr 0870321. Registro D-IGDK. Destruido en un accidente en 1942.
- Ju 87 V16 : W.Nr 0870279. Código Stammkennzeichen de GT + AX.
- Es posible que Ju 87 V17 y Ju 87 V18 nunca se hayan construido. [41]
Ju 87C
El 18 de agosto de 1937, el RLM decidió introducir el Ju 87 Tr (C). El Ju 87 C estaba destinado a ser un bombardero en picado y torpedero para la Kriegsmarine . El tipo se ordenó para la producción de prototipos y estuvo disponible para pruebas en enero de 1938. Las pruebas se realizaron dos meses y debían comenzar en febrero y finalizar en abril de 1938. [51] El prototipo V10 debía ser un avión de prueba de ala fija, mientras que el siguiente V11 se modificaría con alas plegables . Los prototipos eran fuselajes Ju 87 B-0 propulsados por motores Jumo 211 A. [51] Debido a retrasos, el V10 no se completó hasta marzo de 1938. Voló por primera vez el 17 de marzo y fue designado Ju 87 C-1. [51] El 12 de mayo, el V11 también voló por primera vez. Para el 15 de diciembre de 1939, se habían realizado 915 aterrizajes detenidos en tierra firme. Se encontró que el cabrestante del engranaje de detención era demasiado débil y tuvo que ser reemplazado. Las pruebas mostraron que la distancia de frenado promedio fue de 20 a 35 metros (66 a 115 pies). [52] El Ju 87 V11 fue designado C-0 el 8 de octubre de 1938. Fue equipado con equipamiento estándar Ju 87 C-0 y mejores mecanismos de plegado de alas. El "portador Stuka" se iba a construir en la planta de Lemwerder de Weserflug Company entre abril y julio de 1940. [53]
Entre el equipo "especial" del Ju 87 C se encontraba un bote de goma de dos asientos con una pistola de bengalas, munición de señales y otros suministros de emergencia. Un mecanismo de descarga rápida de combustible y dos bolsas inflables de 750 L (200 gal EE.UU.) en cada ala y otras dos bolsas de 500 L (130 gal EE.UU.) en el fuselaje permitieron que el Ju 87 C permaneciera a flote hasta tres días en mares tranquilos. . [53] El 6 de octubre de 1939, con la guerra ya en marcha, 120 de los Ju 87 Tr (C) planeados en ese momento fueron cancelados. A pesar de la cancelación, las pruebas continuaron utilizando catapultas. El Ju 87 C tenía un peso de despegue de 5.300 kg (11.700 lb) y una velocidad de 133 km / h (83 mph) a la salida. El Ju 87 podría lanzarse con una bomba SC de 500 kg (1100 lb) y cuatro bombas SC de 50 kg (110 lb) debajo del fuselaje. El C-1 iba a tener dos MG 17 montados en el ala con un MG 15 operado por el artillero trasero. El 18 de mayo de 1940, la producción del C-1 se cambió al R-1. [54]
Prototipos conocidos [50]
- Ju 87 V10 : Registro D-IHFH (cambiado a Stammkennzeichen de TK + HD). W.Nr 4928. Primer vuelo el 17 de marzo de 1938
- Ju 87 V11 : Stammkennzeichen de TV + OV. W.Nr 4929. Primer vuelo el 12 de mayo de 1938
Ju 87D
A pesar de que la vulnerabilidad del Stuka a los cazas enemigos quedó expuesta durante la Batalla de Gran Bretaña , la Luftwaffe no tuvo más remedio que continuar su desarrollo, ya que no había ningún avión de reemplazo a la vista. [55] El resultado fue la serie D. En junio de 1941, el RLM encargó cinco prototipos, el Ju 87 V21-25. Se iba a instalar un motor Daimler-Benz DB 603 en el Ju 87 D-1, pero no tenía el poder del Jumo 211 y funcionó "mal" durante las pruebas y se cayó. [56] La serie Ju 87 D presentaba dos radiadores de refrigerante debajo de las secciones internas de las alas, mientras que el enfriador de aceite se reubicó en la posición que ocupaba anteriormente el radiador de refrigerante de "mentón", que se encuentra debajo de la nariz. La serie D también introdujo una cabina aerodinámicamente refinada con mejor visibilidad y espacio. [57] Se aumentó la protección de la armadura y se instaló una nueva ametralladora MG 81Z de doble cañón de 7,92 mm (0,312 pulgadas) con una velocidad de disparo extremadamente alta en la posición defensiva trasera. La potencia del motor se incrementó nuevamente, el Jumo 211J ahora entrega 1.420 PS (1.044 kW o 1.400 hp). [57] La capacidad de carga de bombas casi se cuadruplicó de 500 kg (1.100 lb) en la versión B a 1.800 kg (4.000 lb) en la versión D (carga máxima para distancias cortas, condición de sobrecarga), una carga de bomba típica varió de 500–1,200 kg (1,100–2,600 lb). [58]
La capacidad interna de combustible del Ju 87D se elevó a 800 L (de los cuales 780 L eran utilizables) agregando tanques laterales y manteniendo la opción de llevar dos tanques de caída de 300 L. Las pruebas en el aeródromo de Rechlin-Lärz revelaron que hizo posible una duración de vuelo de 2 horas y 15 minutos. Con dos tanques de combustible adicionales de 300 L (80 gal EE.UU.), podría alcanzar cuatro horas de vuelo. [57]
El D-2 era una variante utilizada como remolcador de planeador al convertir los fuselajes de la serie D más antiguos. Estaba pensado como la versión tropical del D-1 y tenía un blindaje más pesado para proteger a la tripulación del fuego terrestre. La armadura redujo su rendimiento y provocó que el Oberkommando der Luftwaffe "no le diera un valor especial a la producción del D-2". [57] El D-3 era un D-1 mejorado con más armadura para su función de ataque terrestre. Algunos Ju 87 D-3 fueron designados D-3N o D-3 trop y equipados con equipo nocturno o tropical. [57] La designación D-4 aplicada a una versión prototipo de torpedo-bombardero, que podría llevar un torpedo aéreo de 750 a 905 kg (1653 a 1,995 lb) en un bastidor de PVC 1006 B; esta configuración habría tenido la capacidad para transportar el Luftorpedo LT 850, la versión alemana del bien probado torpedo aéreo japonés Tipo 91 de 848 kg (1.870 lb). El D-4 se convertiría a partir de fuselajes D-3 y, en lugar de los diseños de la serie Ju 87C específicos del portaaviones, se operaría desde el portaaviones Graf Zeppelin . [59] Otras modificaciones incluyeron un eliminador de llamas y, a diferencia de las variantes D anteriores, dos cañones MG 151/20 de 20 mm, mientras que el suministro de munición del operador de radio / artillero trasero se incrementó de 1000 a 2000 rondas. [60]
El Ju 87 D-5 se basó en el diseño D-3 y era único en la serie Ju 87, ya que tenía alas 0,6 metros (2 pies) más largas que las variantes anteriores. Los dos cañones de ala MG 17 de 7,92 mm se cambiaron por MG 151/20 más potentes de 20 mm para adaptarse mejor a la función de ataque terrestre de la aeronave. Se reforzó la ventana del suelo de la cabina y se instalaron cuatro bisagras de alerón, en lugar de las tres anteriores. Se obtuvieron velocidades de buceo más altas de 650 km / h (400 mph) hasta 2.000 m (6.600 pies). El rango se registró como 715 km (444 millas) a nivel del suelo y 835 km (519 millas) a 5.000 m (16.000 pies). [58]
El D-6, de acuerdo con las "Instrucciones de funcionamiento, documento de obras 2097", fue construido en cantidades limitadas para entrenar a los pilotos en "versiones racionalizadas". Debido a la escasez de materias primas, no entró en producción en masa. [61] El D-7 era otro avión de ataque terrestre basado en fuselajes D-1 actualizados al estándar D-5 (blindaje, cañones de ala, paneles de ala extendidos), mientras que el D-8 era similar al D-7 pero basado en Armazones de avión D-3. [61] Tanto el D-7 como el D-8 estaban equipados con amortiguadores de llama y podían realizar operaciones nocturnas. [61]
La producción de la variante D-1 comenzó en 1941 con 495 pedidos. Estos aviones se entregaron entre mayo de 1941 y marzo de 1942. El RLM quería 832 máquinas producidas a partir de febrero de 1941. La empresa Weserflug se encargó de su producción. De junio a septiembre de 1941, se esperaba que se construyeran 40 Ju 87 D, que aumentaron a 90 a partir de entonces. [62] Se encontraron varios problemas de producción. Uno de los 48 previstos se produjo en julio. De los 25 que esperaba el RLM en agosto de 1941, no se entregó ninguno. [62] En septiembre, los dos primeros de los 102 Ju 87 planeados salieron de las líneas de producción. [63] El déficit continuó hasta finales de 1941. Durante este tiempo, la planta de WFG en Lemwerder trasladó la producción a Berlín. Más de 165 Ju 87 no se habían entregado y la producción era de solo 23 Ju 87 D por mes de los 40 esperados. En la primavera de 1942 hasta el final de la producción en 1944, se habían fabricado 3.300 Ju 87, en su mayoría D-1, D-2 y D-5. [63]
En enero de 1943, una variedad de Ju 87 D se convirtió en "bancos de prueba" para las variantes Ju 87 G. A principios de 1943, el centro de pruebas costero de la Luftwaffe Erprobungsstelle en Tarnewitz probó esta combinación desde una posición estática. El Oberst G. Wolfgang Vorwald señaló que los experimentos no tuvieron éxito y sugirió que el cañón se instalara en el Messerschmitt Me 410 . [64] Las pruebas continuaron, y el 31 de enero de 1943, el Ju 87 D-1 W.Nr 2552 fue probado por Hauptmann Hans-Karl Stepp cerca del área de entrenamiento de Briansk . Stepp notó el aumento de la resistencia, lo que redujo la velocidad del avión a 259 km / h (161 mph). Stepp también señaló que el avión también era menos ágil que las variantes D existentes. Las variantes D-1 y D-3 operaron en combate con el cañón BK 37 de 37 mm (1,5 pulgadas) en 1943. [64]
Prototipos conocidos
- Ju 87 V 21 . Registro D-INRF. W.Nr 0870536. Conversión de fuselaje de B-1 a D-1. Volado por primera vez el 1 de marzo de 1941.
- Ju 87 V 22 Stammkennzeichen de SF + TY. W.Nr 0870540. También conversión de fuselaje de B-1 a D-1. Volado por primera vez el 1 de marzo de 1941.
- Ju 87 V 23 Stammkennzeichen de PB + UB. W.Nr 0870542. También conversión de fuselaje de B-1 a D-1. Volado por primera vez el 1 de marzo de 1941.
- Ju 87 V 24 Stammkennzeichen de BK + EE. W.Nr 0870544. También conversión de fuselaje de B-1 a D-1 / D-4. Volado por primera vez el 1 de marzo de 1941.
- Ju 87 V 25 Stammkennzeichen de BK + EF. W.Nr 0870530. También conversión de fuselaje de B-1 a D-4 trop. Volado por primera vez el 1 de marzo de 1941.
- Ju 87 V 30, the only known prototype of the Ju 87 D-5. W.Nr 2296. First flown on 20 June 1943.
- Ju 87 V 26-28, Ju 87 V 31, and V 42-47 were experiments of unknown variants.[50]
Ju 87G
With the G variant, the ageing airframe of the Ju 87 found new life as an anti-tank aircraft. This was the final operational version of the Stuka, and was deployed on the Eastern Front. The reverse in German military fortunes after 1943 and the appearance of huge numbers of well-armoured Soviet tanks caused Junkers to adapt the existing design to combat this new threat. The Henschel Hs 129B had proved a potent ground attack weapon, but its large fuel tanks made it vulnerable to enemy fire, prompting the RLM to say "that in the shortest possible time a replacement of the Hs 129 type must take place."[65] With Soviet tanks the priority targets, the development of a further variant as a successor to the Ju 87D began in November 1942. On 3 November, Milch raised the question of replacing the Ju 87, or redesigning it altogether. It was decided to keep the design as it was, but the power-plant was upgraded to a Junkers Jumo 211J, and two 30 mm (1.2 in) cannons were added. The variant was also designed to carry a 1,000 kg (2,200 lb) free-fall bomb load. Furthermore, the armoured protection of the Ilyushin Il-2 Sturmovik—a feature pioneered by the 1916–17 origin Junkers J.I all-metal sesquiplane of World War I Imperial Germany's Luftstreitkräfte—was copied to protect the crew from ground fire now that the Ju 87 would be required to conduct low level attacks.[66]
Hans-Ulrich Rudel, a Stuka ace, had suggested using two 37 mm (1.46 in) Flak 18 guns, each one in a self-contained under-wing gun pod, as the Bordkanone BK 3,7, after achieving success against Soviet tanks with the 20 mm MG 151/20 cannon. These gun pods were fitted to a Ju 87 D-1, W.Nr 2552. The first flight of the machine took place on 31 January 1943, piloted by Stepp.[64] The continuing problems with about two dozen of the Ju 88P-1 and slow development of the Henschel Hs 129B-3, each of them equipped with a large, PaK 40-based, autoloading Bordkanone 7,5 7.5 cm (2.95 in) cannon in a conformal gun pod beneath the fuselage, meant the Ju 87G was put into production. In April 1943, the first production Ju 87 G-1s were delivered to front line units.[64] The two 37 mm (1.46 in) Bordkanone BK 3,7 cannons were mounted in under-wing gun pods, each loaded with two six-round magazines of armour-piercing tungsten carbide-cored ammunition. With these weapons, the Kanonenvogel ("cannon-bird"), as it was nicknamed, proved very successful in the hands of Stuka aces such as Rudel. The G-1 was converted from older D-series airframes, retaining the smaller wing, but without the dive brakes. The G-2 was similar to the G-1 except for use of the extended wing of the D-5. 208 G-2s were built and at least a further 22 more were converted from D-3 airframes. Only a handful of production Gs were committed in the Battle of Kursk. On the opening day of the offensive, Hans-Ulrich Rudel flew the only "official" Ju 87 G, although a significant number of Ju 87D variants were fitted with the 37 mm (1.46 in) cannon, and operated as unofficial Ju 87 Gs before the battle. In June 1943, the RLM ordered 20 Ju 87Gs as production variants.[67] The G-1 later influenced the design of the Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II, with Hans Rudel's book, Stuka Pilot being required reading for all members of the A-X project.[68]
Night-harassment variants
The Ju 87 had been used in the night intruder role in 1940 and 1941 during The Blitz,[69] but the Soviet Air Force practice of harassing German ground forces using antiquated Polikarpov Po-2 and R-5 biplanes at night to drop flares and fragmentation bombs, inspired the Luftwaffe to form its own Störkampfstaffeln (harassment squadrons). On 23 July 1942, Junkers offered the Ju 87 B-2, R-2 and R-4s with Flammenvernichter ("flame eliminators"). On 10 November 1943, the RLM GL/C-E2 Division finally authorised the design in directive No. 1117.[70]
The need to equip night units and the phasing out of Ju 87s from ground attack groups in favour of the Fw 190, enabled the use of D-5 airframes awaiting repair and D-7 and 8s already in conversion units. The latter variants were either conversions or modified D-1 and D-3 air frames. Adding the necessary equipment, radios and dampeners was a requirement regardless of whether the aircraft was a production D-5 or a D-1 or 3 that had undergone wing changes. The change in designations due to conversions was not readily apparent, for with wing changes, the serial number and designation was applied to the fuselage by the manufacture which remained unaltered by wing changes. Some sub-contractors added an "N" designation (Nacht) for clarity on D-3 and 5s . Others added the roman numeral VII to the D-7s, perhaps to reflect that the aircraft was fitted with the FuG 7 radio. A great deal of confusion exists concerning the D-7. Its existence has been questioned, but the type is listed in Junkers company records and in the Der Reichminister der Luftfahrt and Oberbefehlshabere der Luftwaffe Technisches Amt. There was no production "nacht stuka", and modifications could vary according to the sub-contractor and depending on what parts were available.[71]
A Stuka repair centre was set up at Wels-Lichtenegg. From May 1940 to November 1944, 746 were repaired and flight-tested there. In the winter 1943/44, the Metal Works Lower Saxony Brinckmann und Mergell company (Menibum) converted approximately 300 Ju 87D-3 and 5s to night versions. Dive-brakes were removed there, while gun muzzles and dampers were to eliminate exhaust and muzzle flash. The Jumo 211P engine was installed in some cases. It took 2,170 technicians and workers to carry out the conversions. Total figures for conversions to night flying operations are unknown. The company's equipment was seized by the Soviet Union at the end of the war, and the records were lost or destroyed.[72] A main piece of equipment, hereto not installed in the Ju 87, was the FuG 101 Electronic Radio Altimeter. This was used to measure height. Some Ju 87s also used FuG 16Z transmitter/receiver set to augment the FuG 25 IFF (Identification Friend or Foe).[73]
Pilots were also asked to complete the new "Blind Flying Certificate 3", which was especially introduced for this new type of operation. Pilots were trained at night, over unfamiliar terrain, and forced to rely on their instruments for direction. The Ju 87's standard Revi C12D gunsight was replaced with the new Nachtrevi ("Nightrevi") C12N. On some Ju 87s, the Revi 16D was exchanged for the Nachtrevi 16D. To help the pilot see his instrument panel, a violet light was installed.[74]
On 15 November 1942, the Auxiliary Staffel was created. By mid-1943, Luftflotte 1 was given four Staffeln while Luftflotte 4 and Luftwaffe Kommando Ost (Luftwaffe Command East) were given six and two respectively. In the first half of 1943, 12 Nachtschlachtgruppen ("night battle groups"—NSGr) had been formed, flying a multitude of different types of aircraft, including the Ju 87, which proved itself ideally suited to the low-level slow flying needed.[75] NSGr 1 and 2 fought with some success on the Western Front during the Battle of Normandy and Battle of the Bulge.[76][77] NSGr 7 operated in "anti-partisan" role from bases in Albania from July 1944, replacing their use of German trainers.[78] The 3rd and 4th group served on the Eastern Front, the 8th in the Arctic and the 9th in Italy.[79] NSGr 20 fought against the Western Allied invasion of Germany in 1945. Photographic evidence exists of 16 NSGr 20 Ju 87s lining up to take-off in the woods circling the Lippe airfield, Germany while under attack from P-47 Thunderbolts of the IX Tactical Air Command. The unit operated against the Ludendorff Bridge during the Battle of Remagen.[80]
Producción
Despite initial production issues with the Ju 87, the RLM ordered 216 Ju 87 A-1s into production and wanted to receive delivery of all machines between January 1936 and 1938. The Junkers production capacity was fully occupied and licensing to other production facilities became necessary. The first 35 Ju 87 A-1s were therefore produced by the Weser Flugzeugbau (WFG). By 1 September 1939, 360 Ju 87 As and Bs had been built by the Junkers factories at Dessau and Weserflug factory in Lemwerder near Bremen. By 30 September 1939, Junkers had received 2,365,196 Reichsmark (RM) for Ju 87 construction orders. The RLM paid another 243,646 RM for development orders. According to audit records in Berlin, by the end of the financial year on 30 September 1941, 3,059,000 RM had been spent on Ju 87 airframes.[81] By 30 June 1940, 697 Ju 87 B-1s and 129 B-2s alone had been produced. Another 105 R-1s and seven R-2s had been built.[81]
The range of the B-2 was insufficient, and dropped in favor of the Ju 87 R long-range versions in the second half of 1940. The 105 R-1s were converted to R-2 status and a further 616 production R-2s were ordered. In May 1941, the development of the D-1 was planned and was ordered into production by March 1942. The expansion of the Ju 88 production lines to compensate for the withdrawal of Dornier Do 17 production delayed production of the Ju 87 D. The Weserflug plant in Lemwerder experienced production shortfalls. This prompted Milch to visit and threaten the company into meeting the RLM's Ju 87 D-1 requirements on 23 February 1942.[82] To meet these demands, 700 skilled workers were needed.[82] Skilled workers had been called up for military service in the Wehrmacht. Junkers were able to supply 300 German workers to the Weserflug factory, and as an interim solution, Soviet prisoners of war and Soviet civilians deported to Germany.[82] Working around the clock, the shortfall was made good. WFG received an official commendation.[82] By May 1942, demand increased further. Chief of Procurement General Walter Herthel found that each unit needed 100 Ju 87s as standard strength and an average of 20 per month to cover attrition. Not until June–December 1942 did production capacity increase, and 80 Ju 87s were produced per month.[82]
By 17 August 1942, production had climbed rapidly after Blohm & Voss BV 138 production was scaled down and licence work had shut down at WFG. Production now reached 150 Ju 87 D airframes per month, but spare parts were failing to reach the same production levels. Undercarriage parts were in particularly short supply. Milch ordered production to 350 Ju 87s per month in September 1942. This was not achievable due to the insufficient production capacity in the Reich.[82]
The RLM considered setting up production facilities in Slovakia. But this would delay production until the buildings and factories could be furnished with the machine tools. These tools were also in short supply, and the RLM hoped to purchase them from Switzerland and Italy. The Slovaks could provide 3,500–4,000 workers, but no technical personnel.[83] The move would only produce another 25 machines per month at a time when demand was increasing. In October, production plans were dealt another blow when one of WFGs plants burned down, leaving a chronic shortage of tailwheels and undercarriage parts. Junkers director and member of the Luftwaffe industry council Carl Frytag reported that by January 1943 only 120 Ju 87s could be produced at Bremen and 230 at Berlin-Tempelhof.[83]
Decline and end of production
After evaluating Ju 87 operations on the Eastern Front, Göring ordered production limited to 200 per month in total. General der Schlachtflieger General of Close-Support Aviation) Ernst Kupfer decided continued development would "hardly bring any further tactical value". Adolf Galland, a fighter pilot with operational and combat experience in strike aircraft, said that abandoning development would be premature, but 150 machines per month would be sufficient.[83]
On 28 July 1943, strike and bomber production was to be scaled down, and fighter and bomber destroyer production given priority. On 3 August 1943, Milch contradicted this and declared that this increase in fighter production would not affect production of the Ju 87, Ju 188, Ju 288 and Ju 290. This was an important consideration as the life expectancy of a Ju 87 had been reduced (since 1941) from 9.5 months to 5.5 months to just 100 operational flying hours.[84] On 26 October, General der Schlachtflieger Ernst Kupfer reported the Ju 87 could no longer survive in operations and that the Focke-Wulf Fw 190F should take its place. Milch finally agreed and ordered the minimal continuance of Ju 87 D-3 and D-5 production for a smooth transition period.[84] In May 1944, production wound down. 78 Ju 87s were built in May and 69 rebuilt from damaged machines. In the next six months, 438 Ju 87 Ds and Gs were added to the Ju 87 force as new or repaired aircraft. It is unknown whether any Ju 87s were built from parts unofficially after December 1944 and the end of production.[84]
Overall, 550 Ju 87 As and B2s were completed at the Junkers factory in Dessau. Production of the Ju 87 R and D variants was transferred to the Weserflug company, which produced 5,930 of the 6,500 Ju 87s produced in total.[85] During the course of the war, little damage was done to the WFG plant at Lemwerder. Attacks throughout 1940-45 caused little lasting damage and succeeded only in damaging some Ju 87 airframes, in contrast to the Focke-Wulf plant in Bremen.[86] At Berlin-Tempelhof, little delay or damage was caused to Ju 87 production, despite the heavy bombings and large-scale destruction inflicted on other targets. The WFG again went unscathed. The Junkers factory at Dessau was heavily attacked, but not until Ju 87 production had ceased. The Ju 87 repair facility at the Wels aircraft works was destroyed on 30 May 1944, and the site abandoned Ju 87 links.[87]
Historia operativa
Spanish Civil War
Among the many German aircraft designs that participated in the Condor Legion, and as part of other German involvement in the Spanish Civil War, a single Ju 87 A-0 (the V4 prototype) was allocated serial number 29-1 and was assigned to the VJ/88, the experimental Staffel of the Legion's fighter wing. The aircraft was secretly loaded onto the ship Usaramo and departed Hamburg harbour on the night of 1 August 1936, arriving in Cádiz five days later. The only known information pertaining to its combat career in Spain is that it was piloted by Unteroffizier Herman Beuer, and took part in the Nationalist offensive against Bilbao in 1937. Presumably the aircraft was then secretly returned to Germany.[88]
In January 1938, three Ju 87 As from the Legion Condor arrived. Several problems became evident—the spatted undercarriage sank into muddy airfield surfaces, and the spats were temporarily removed. The maximum 500 kg (1,100 lb) bomb load could only be carried if the gunner vacated his seat, therefore the bomb load was restricted to 250 kg (550 lb). These aircraft supported the Nationalist forces and carried out anti-shipping missions until they returned to Germany in October 1938.[88] During the Catalonia Offensive in January 1939, the Junkers Ju 87 returned to Spain. On the morning of 21 January 1939, 34 Heinkel He 111, along with some escorts and three Ju 87B, attacked the Port of Barcelona, five days before the city was captured by the Nationalists.[89] 29 Republican fighters were defending the city. There were more than 100 aircraft operating over the city and, while a Ju 87 was dive-bombing a ship, a Republican Polikarpov I-15 pilot, Francisco Alférez Jiménez, claimed it destroyed near El Vendrell, in Comarruga, but the Stuka was capable of landing on the beach without crashing. That was the only time a Stuka attacked the capital of Catalonia.[90] On 24 January 1939, a group of Stukas prevented the destruction of a bridge near Barcelona by strafing the demolition engineers on Molins de Rei. During the attack the Republican ground defenders, equipped with a quadruple PM M1910 mounting, hit one pilot (Heinz Bohne) in both legs and the Stuka crashed, seriously injuring Bohne, and his machine gunner, Albert Conrad. Those two were the only Stuka casualties of the war.[91]
As with the Ju 87 A-0, the B-1s were returned discreetly to the Reich.[92] The experience of the Spanish Civil War proved invaluable - air and ground crews perfected their skills, and equipment was evaluated under combat conditions. The Ju 87 had however not been tested against numerous and well-coordinated fighter opposition; this lesson was learned later at great cost to the Stuka crews.[93]
Second World War
All Stuka units were moved to Germany's eastern border in preparation for the invasion of Poland. On the morning of 15 August 1939, during a mass-formation dive-bombing demonstration for high-ranking commanders of the Luftwaffe at Neuhammer training grounds near Sagan, 13 Ju 87s and 26 crew members were lost when they crashed into the ground almost simultaneously. The planes dived through cloud, expecting to release their practice bombs and pull out of the dive once below the cloud ceiling, unaware that the ceiling was too low and unexpected ground mist formed, leaving them no time to pull out of the dive.[94]
Poland
On 1 September 1939, the Wehrmacht invaded Poland, beginning World War II. Generalquartiermeister der Luftwaffe records indicate a total force of 366 Ju 87 A and Bs were available for operations on 31 August 1939.[25] The first Ju 87 operation was to destroy Polish demolition charges fixed to the rail bridges over the Vistula, that linked Eastern Germany to the Danzig corridor and East Prussia as well as Polish Pomerania. To do this, Ju 87s were ordered to perform a low-level attack on the Polish Army Garrison headquarters. II. and III./StG 1 targeted the cables along the embankment, the electricity plant and signal boxes at Dirschau (now Tczew, Poland. At exactly 04:26 CET, a Kette ("chain" or flight of three) of Ju 87s of 3./StG 1 led by Staffelkapitän Oberleutnant Bruno Dilly carried out the first bombing attack of the war. The Stukas attacked 11 minutes before the official German declaration of hostilities and hit the targets. The Ju 87s achieved complete success. The mission failed as the German Army delayed their advance allowing the Poles to carry out repairs and destroy all but one of the bridges before the Germans could reach them.[44][95][96]
A Ju 87 achieved the first air victory during World War II on the morning of 1 September 1939, when Rottenführer Leutnant Frank Neubert of I./StG 2 "Immelmann" shot down a Polish PZL P.11c fighter while it was taking off from Balice airfield; its pilot, Captain Mieczysław Medwecki, was killed. In air-to-air combat, Ju 87 formations were well protected by German fighter aircraft and losses were light against the tenacious, but short lived opposition.[97]
The Ju 87s reverted to ground attack missions for the campaign after the opening air attacks. Ju 87s were involved in the controversial but effective attacks at Wieluń. The lack of anti-aircraft artillery in the Polish Army magnified the impact of the Ju 87. At Piotrków Trybunalski I./StG 76 and I./StG 2 destroyed a Polish infantry division de-training there. Troop trains were also easy targets. StG 77 destroyed one such target at Radomsko.[98] During the Battle of Radom six Polish divisions trapped by encircling German forces were forced to surrender after a relentless four-day bombardment by StG 51, 76 and 77. Employed in this assault were 50 kg (110 lb) fragmentation bombs, which caused appalling casualties to the Polish ground troops. Demoralised, the Poles surrendered. The Stukas also participated in the Battle of Bzura which resulted in the breaking of Polish resistance. The dive bomber wings (Sturzkampfgeschwader) alone dropped 388 tonnes (428 tons) of bombs during this battle.[99] During the Siege of Warsaw and the Battle of Modlin, the Ju 87 wings contributed to the defeat of well-entrenched and resolute Polish forces. IV(Stuka)./LG 1 was particularly effective in destroying the fortified Modlin.[100]
The Luftwaffe had a few anti-shipping naval units such as 4.(St)/TrGr 186 to deal with Polish naval forces. This unit performed effectively, sinking the 1540-ton destroyer Wicher and the minelayer Gryf of the Polish Navy (both moored in a harbour).[97] The torpedo boat Mazur (412 tons) was sunk at Oksywie; the gunboat General Haller (441 tons) was sunk in Hel Harbour on 6 September—during the Battle of Hel—along with the minesweeper Mewa (183 tons) and its sister ships Czapla and Jaskolka with several auxiliaries. The Polish naval units trapped in the Baltic were destroyed by Ju 87 operations.[101] Once again, enemy air opposition was light, and the Stukawaffe (Stuka force) lost 31 aircraft during the campaign.[102]
Norway
Operation Weserübung began on 9 April 1940 with the invasions of Norway and Denmark. Denmark capitulated within the day; Norway continued to resist with British and French help. The campaign was not a Blitzkrieg of fast-moving armoured divisions supported by air power as the mountainous terrain ruled out close Panzer/Stuka cooperation. Instead, the Germans relied on paratroops transported by Junkers Ju 52s and specialised ski troops. The Ju 87s were given the role of ground attack and anti-shipping missions; they proved to be the most effective weapon in the Luftwaffe's armoury carrying out the latter task.[102]
On 9 April, the first Stukas took off at 10:59 from occupied airfields to destroy Oscarsborg Fortress, after the loss of the German cruiser Blücher, which disrupted the amphibious landings in Oslo through Oslofjord. The 22 Ju 87s had helped suppress the Norwegian defenders during the ensuing Battle of Drøbak Sound, but the defenders did not surrender until after Oslo had been captured. As a result, the German naval operation failed.[103] StG 1 caught the 735 ton Norwegian destroyer Æger off Stavanger and hit her in the engine room. Æger was run aground and scuttled.[104] The Stuka wings were now equipped with the new Ju 87 R, which differed from the Ju 87 B by having increased internal fuel capacity and two 300l underwing drop tanks for more range.[102]
The Stukas had numerous successes against Allied naval vessels and in particular the Royal Navy which posed a formidable threat to German naval and coastal operations. The heavy cruiser Suffolk was attacked on 17 April. Her stern was virtually destroyed but she limped back to Scapa Flow with 33 dead and 38 wounded crewmen. The light cruiser squadron consisting of the sister ships Curacoa and Curlew were subjected to lengthy attacks which badly damaged the former for one Ju 87 lost. A witness later said, "they threatened to take our masthead with them in every screaming nerve-racking dive".[105] The same fate nearly befell the sloop Black Swan. On 27 April, a bomb passed through the quarterdeck, a wardroom, a water tank and 4-inch (10.2 cm) magazine and out through the hull to explode in the fjord. The muffled explosion limited the damage to her hull. Black Swan fired 1,000 rounds, but failed to shoot any of her attackers down. HMS Bittern was sunk on 30 April. The French large destroyer Bison was sunk along with HMS Afridi by Sturzkampfgeschwader 1 on 3 May 1940 during the evacuation from Namsos. Bison's forward magazine was hit, killing 108 of the crew. Afridi, which attempted to rescue Bison's survivors, was sunk with the loss of 63 sailors.[104] 49 officers and men, 13 soldiers and 33 survivors from Bison were lost aboard Afridi.[106] All ships were targeted. Armed trawlers were used under the German air umbrella in an attempt to make smaller targets. Such craft were not armoured or armed. The Ju 87s demonstrated this on 30 April when they sank the Jardine (452 tons) and Warwickshire (466 tons). On 15 May, the Polish troopship Chrobry (11,442 tons) was sunk.[107][108][109]
The Stukas also had an operational effect, even when little damage was done. On 1 May 1940, Vice Admiral Lionel Wells commanded a Home Fleet expedition of seven destroyers, the heavy cruiser Berwick, the aircraft carriers Glorious and Ark Royal, and the battleship Valiant. The carriers mounted fighter patrols over the ships evacuating troops from Andalsnes. The Stuka waves (accompanied by He 111s) achieved several near misses, but were unable to obtain a hit. Nevertheless, Wells ordered that no ship was to operate within range of the Ju 87s' Norwegian airfields. The Ju 87s had, in effect, driven British sea power from the Norwegian coast. Moreover, Victor reported to the Commander-in-Chief of the Home Fleet Admiral, Charles Forbes, that carrier operations were no longer practical under the current conditions.[110]
In the following weeks, StG 1 continued their sea operations. Off Namsos on 5 May 1940, they caught and sank the Royal Norwegian Navy transports Aafjord (335 tons) and Blaafjeld (1,146 tons). The Ju 87s then took to bombing the town and the airstrip to support the German forces under the command of Eduard Dietl. The town fell in the first week of May. In the remaining four weeks of the campaign in Norway, the Ju 87s supported German forces in containing the Allied land forces in Narvik until they withdrew in early June.[106]
France and the Low Countries
The Ju 87 units had learned lessons from the Polish and Norwegian campaigns. The failures in Poland, and of the Stukas of I./StG 1 to silence the Oscarsborg fort, ensured even more attention was paid to pin-point bombing during the Phoney War period. This was to pay off in the Western campaign.[111]
When Fall Gelb (Case Yellow) began on 10 May 1940, the Stuka helped swiftly neutralise the fortress of Eben Emael, Belgium. The headquarters of the commander responsible for ordering the destruction of the Belgian Army-held bridges along the Albert Canal was stationed in the village of Lanaken (14 km/ mi to the north). The Stuka demonstrated its accuracy when the small building was destroyed by four direct hits. As a result, only one of the three bridges was destroyed, allowing the German Army to rapidly advance in the opening days of the Battle of Belgium.[111] The Ju 87 proved to be a useful asset to Army Group B in the Low Countries. In pitched battles against French armoured forces at Hannut and Gembloux, Ju 87s effectively neutralised artillery and armour.[112]
The Ju 87s also assisted German forces in the Battle of the Netherlands. The Dutch Navy in concert with the British were evacuating the Dutch Royal Family and Dutch gold reserves through the country's ports. Ju 87s sank the Dutch ships Jan Van Galen (1,316 tons) and Johan Maurits Van Nassau (1,520 tons) as they provided close-shore artillery support at Waalhaven and the Afsluitdijk. The British Valentine was crippled, beached and scuttled while Winchester, Whitley and Westminster were damaged. Whitley was later beached and scuttled after an air attack on 19 May.[112]
The Ju 87 units were also instrumental in the Battle of France. It was here that most of the Ju 87-equipped units were concentrated. They assisted in the breakthrough at Sedan, the critical and first major land battle of the war on French territory. The Stukawaffe flew 300 sorties against French positions, with StG 77 alone flying 201 individual missions. The Ju 87s benefited from heavy fighter protection from Messerschmitt Bf 109 units.[113] When resistance was organised, the Ju 87s could be vulnerable. For example, on 12 May, near Sedan, six French Curtiss H-75s from Groupe de Chasse I/5 (Group Interception) attacked a formation of Ju 87s, claiming 11 out of 12 unescorted Ju 87s without loss (the Germans recorded six losses over Sedan entire).[114][115] For the most part, Allied opposition was disorganised. During the battles of Montcornet, Arras, Bolougne, and Calais, Ju 87 operations broke up counterattacks and offered pin-point aerial artillery support for German infantry.[116]
The Luftwaffe benefited from excellent ground-to-air communications throughout the campaign. Radio equipped forward liaison officers could call upon the Stukas and direct them to attack enemy positions along the axis of advance. In some cases the Stukas responded in 10–20 minutes. Oberstleutnant Hans Seidemann (Richthofen's Chief of Staff) said that "never again was such a smoothly functioning system for discussing and planning joint operations achieved."[117]
During the Battle of Dunkirk, many Allied ships were lost to Ju 87 attacks while evacuating British and French troops. The French destroyer L'Adroit was sunk on 21 May 1940, followed by the paddle steamer Crested Eagle on 28 May. The French Channel-steamer Côte d'Arzur (3,047) followed. The Ju 87s operated to maximum effectiveness when the weather allowed. RAF fighter units were held back and Allied air cover was patchy at best. On 29 May the Royal Navy destroyer HMS Grenade was severely damaged by a Ju 87 attack within Dunkirk's harbour, and subsequently sank. The French destroyer Mistral was crippled by bomb damage the same day. Jaguar and Verity were badly damaged while the trawlers Calvi and Polly Johnson (363 and 290 tons) disintegrated under bombardment. The merchant ship Fenella (2,376 tons) was sunk having taken on 600 soldiers. The attacks brought the evacuation to a halt for a time. The ferries Lorina and Normannia (1,564 and 1,567 tons) were sunk also.[118] By 29 May, the Allies had lost 31 vessels sunk and 11 damaged.[119] On 1 June the Ju 87s sank the Halcyon-class minesweeper Skipjack while the destroyer Keith was sunk and Basilisk was crippled before being scuttled by Whitehall. Whitehall was later badly damaged and along with Ivanhoe, staggered back to Dover. Havant, commissioned for just three weeks, was sunk and in the evening the French destroyer Foudroyant sank after a mass-attack. Further victories against shipping were claimed before nightfall on 1 June. The steamer Pavon was lost while carrying 1,500 Dutch soldiers most of whom were killed. The oil tanker Niger was also destroyed. A flotilla of French minesweepers were also lost—Denis Papin (264 tons), the Le Moussaillon (380 tons) and Venus (264 tons).[120]
In total, 89 merchantmen (of 126,518 grt) were lost, and of 40 RN destroyers used in the battle eight were sunk (one to E-boat and one to a submarine), and a further 23 damaged and out of service.[121] The campaign ended after the French surrender on 25 June 1940. Allied air power had been ineffective and disorganised, and as a result, Stuka losses were mainly due to ground fire. 120 machines, one-third of the Stuka force, were destroyed or damaged by all causes from 10 May to 25 June 1940.[122]
Battle of Britain
For the Battle of Britain, the Luftwaffe's order of battle included bomber wings equipped with the Ju 87. Lehrgeschwader 2's IV.(St), Sturzkampfgeschwader 1's III. Gruppe and Sturzkampfgeschwader 2's III. Gruppe, Sturzkampfgeschwader 51 and Sturzkampfgeschwader 3's I. Gruppe were committed to the battle. As an anti-shipping weapon, the Ju 87 proved a potent weapon in the early stages of the battle. On 4 July 1940, StG 2 made a successful attack on a convoy in the English Channel, sinking four freighters: Britsum, Dallas City, Deucalion and Kolga. Six more were damaged. That afternoon, 33 Ju 87s delivered the single most deadly air assault on British territory in history, when 33 Ju 87s of III./StG 51, avoiding Royal Air Force (RAF) interception, sank the 5,500 ton anti-aircraft ship HMS Foylebank in Portland Harbour, killing 176 of its 298 crew. One of Foylebank's gunners, Leading Seaman John F. Mantle continued to fire on the Stukas as the ship sank. He was awarded a posthumous Victoria Cross for remaining at his post despite being mortally wounded. Mantle may have been responsible for the single Ju 87 lost during the raid.[123][124]
During August, the Ju 87s also had some success. On 13 August the opening of the main German attacks on airfields took place; it was known to the Luftwaffe as Adlertag ("Eagle Day"). Bf 109s of Jagdgeschwader 26 (JG 26) were sent out in advance of the main strike and drew off RAF fighters, allowing 86 Ju 87s of StG 1 to attack RAF Detling in Kent unhindered. The attack killed the station commander, destroyed 20 RAF aircraft on the ground and a great many of the airfield's buildings. Detling was not an RAF Fighter Command station.[125]
The Battle of Britain proved for the first time that the Junkers Ju 87 was vulnerable in hostile skies against well-organised and determined fighter opposition. The Ju 87, like other dive bombers, was slow and possessed inadequate defences. Furthermore, it could not be effectively protected by fighters because of its low speed, and the very low altitudes at which it ended its dive bomb attacks. The Stuka depended on air superiority, the very thing being contested over Britain. It was withdrawn from attacks on Britain in August after prohibitive losses, leaving the Luftwaffe without precision ground-attack aircraft.[126]
Steady losses had occurred throughout their participation in the battle. On 18 August, known as the Hardest Day because both sides suffered heavy losses, the Stuka was withdrawn after 16 were destroyed and many others damaged.[127] According to the Generalquartiermeister der Luftwaffe, 59 Stukas had been destroyed and 33 damaged to varying degrees in six weeks of operations. Over 20% of the total Stuka strength had been lost between 8 and 18 August;[128] and the myth of the Stuka shattered.[128][129] The Ju 87s did succeed in sinking six warships, 14 merchant ships, badly damaging seven airfields and three Chain Home radar stations, and destroying 49 British aircraft, mainly on the ground.[130]
On 19 August, the units of VIII. Fliegerkorps moved up from their bases around Cherbourg-Octeville and concentrated in the Pas de Calais under Luftflotte 2, closer to the area of the proposed invasion of Britain.[130] On 13 September, the Luftwaffe targeted airfields again, with a small number of Ju 87s crossing the coast at Selsey and heading for Tangmere.[131] After a lull, anti-shipping operations attacks were resumed by some Ju 87 units from 1 November 1940, as part of the new winter tactic of enforcing a blockade. Over the next 10 days, seven merchant ships were sunk or damaged, mainly in the Thames Estuary, for the loss of four Ju 87s. On 14 November 19 Stukas from III./St.G 1 with escort drawn from JG 26 and JG 51 went out against another convoy; as no targets were found over the estuary, the Stukas attacked Dover, their alternative target.[130]
Bad weather resulted in a decline of anti-shipping operations, and before long the Ju 87 groups began re-deploying to Poland, as part of the concealed build-up for Operation Barbarossa. By spring 1941, only St.G 1 with 30 Ju 87s remained facing the United Kingdom. Operations on a small scale continued throughout the winter months into March. Targets included ships at sea, the Thames Estuary, the Chatham naval dockyard and Dover and night-bomber sorties made over the Channel. These attacks were resumed the following winter.[130][132]
North Africa and the Mediterranean
After the Italian defeats in the Italo-Greek War and Operation Compass in North Africa, the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht ordered the deployment of German forces to these theatres. Amongst the Luftwaffe contingent deployed was the command unit StG 3, which touched down in Sicily in December 1940. In the next few days, two groups - 80 Stukas - were deployed under X. Fliegerkorps.
The first task of the Korps was to attack British shipping passing between Sicily and Africa, in particular the convoys aimed at re-supplying Malta. The Ju 87s first made their presence felt by subjecting the British aircraft carrier HMS Illustrious to heavy attack. The crews were confident that they could sink it as the flight deck had an area of about 6,500 m2 (70,000 sq ft).[133] On 10 January 1941, the Stuka crews were told that four direct hits with 500 kg (1,100 lb) bombs would be enough to sink the carrier. The Ju 87s delivered six and three damaging near-misses but the ship's engines were untouched and she reached the besieged harbour of Malta.[134]
The Regia Aeronautica was equipped for a while with the Stukas.[135] In 1939, the Italian government asked the RLM to supply 100 Ju 87s. Italian pilots were sent to Graz in Austria to be trained for dive-bombing aircraft. In the spring of 1940, between 72 and 108 Ju 87 B-1s, some of them ex-Luftwaffe aircraft, were delivered to 96° Gruppo Bombardamento a Tuffo. The Italian Stuka, renamed Picchiatello, was in turn assigned to Gruppi 97°, 101° and 102°. The Picchiatelli were used against Malta, Allied convoys in Mediterranean and in North Africa (where they took part in conquering Tobruk). They were used by the Regia Aeronautica up to 1942.[135]
Some of the Picchiatelli saw action in the opening phase of the Italian invasion of Greece in October 1940. Their numbers were low and ineffective in comparison to German operations. The Italian forces were quickly pushed back. By early 1941, the Greeks had pushed into Italian-occupied Albania. Once again, Hitler decided to send military aid to his ally.[136] Before the Luftwaffe could intervene, the Italian Ju 87s achieved some successes. 97 Gruppo (Group) and its 239 Squadriglia (Squadron) sinking the Hellenic Navy freighter Susanah off Corfu on 4 April 1941 while the torpedo boat Proussa was sunk later in the day. On 21 April the Greek freighter Ioanna was sunk and they accounted for the British tanker Hekla off Tobruk on 25 May and then the Royal Australian Navy destroyer Waterhen on 20 June. The British gunboat Cricket and supply submarine Cachalot became victims. The former was crippled and later sunk by Italian warships.[137]
In March, the pro-German Yugoslav government was toppled. A furious Hitler ordered the attack to be expanded to include Yugoslavia. Operation Marita commenced on 7 April. The Luftwaffe committed StG 1, 2 and 77 to the campaign.[138] The Stuka once again spearheaded the air assault, with a front line strength of 300 machines, against minimal Yugoslav resistance in the air, allowing the Stukas to develop a fearsome reputation in this region. Operating unmolested, they took a heavy toll of ground forces, suffering only light losses to ground fire. The effectiveness of the dive bombers helped bring about Yugoslav capitulation in ten days. The Stukas also took a peripheral part in Operation Punishment, Hitler's retribution bombing of Belgrade. The dive bombers were to attack airfields and anti-aircraft gun positions as the level bombers struck civilian targets. Belgrade was badly damaged, with 2,271 people killed and 12,000 injured.[139]
In Greece, despite British aid, little air opposition was encountered. As the Allies withdrew and resistance collapsed, the Allies began evacuating to Crete. The Stukas inflicted severe damage on Allied shipping. On 22 April, the 1,389 ton destroyers Psara and Ydra were sunk. In the next two days, the Greek naval base at Piraeus lost 23 vessels to Stuka attack.[140]
During the Battle of Crete, the Ju 87s also played a significant role. On 21–22 May 1941, the Germans attempted to send in reinforcements to Crete by sea but lost 10 vessels to "Force D" under the command of Rear Admiral Irvine Glennie. The force, consisting of the cruisers HMS Dido, Orion and Ajax, forced the remaining German ships to retreat. The Stukas were called upon to deal with the British naval threat.[141] On 21 May, the destroyer HMS Juno was sunk and the next day the battleship HMS Warspite was damaged and the cruiser HMS Gloucester was sunk, with the loss of 45 officers and 648 ratings. The Ju 87s also crippled the cruiser HMS Fiji that morning, (she was later finished off by Bf 109 fighter bombers) while sinking the destroyer HMS Greyhound with one hit.[142] As the Battle of Crete drew to a close, the Allies began yet another withdrawal. On 23 May, the Royal Navy lost the destroyers HMS Kashmir and Kelly, followed by HMS Hereward on 26 May; Orion and Dido were also severely damaged.[143] Orion had been evacuating 1,100 soldiers to North Africa; 260 of them were killed and another 280 wounded.[144]
The dive bomber wing supported Generalfeldmarschall Erwin Rommel's Afrika Korps in its two-year campaign in North Africa; its other main task was attacking Allied shipping.[145] In 1941, Ju 87 operations in North Africa were dominated by the Siege of Tobruk, which lasted for over seven months.[146] It served during the Battle of Gazala and the First Battle of El Alamein, as well as the decisive Second Battle of El Alamein, which drove Rommel back to Tunisia. As the tide turned and Allied air power grew in the autumn of 1942, the Ju 87 became very vulnerable and losses were heavy. The entry of the Americans into North Africa during Operation Torch made the situation far worse; the Stuka was obsolete in what was now a fighter-bomber's war. The Bf 109 and Fw 190 could at least fight enemy fighters on equal terms after dropping their ordnance but the Stuka could not. The Ju 87's vulnerability was demonstrated on 11 November 1942, when 15 Ju 87 Ds were shot down by United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) Curtiss P-40Fs in minutes.[147] (According to Ring/Shores there were 15 Ju 87 on mission, 2.SAAF Sqn. shot down 8 with 4 probable and 3shot down by 57.Fighter Group. 2 South-African and 1 American loss shot down by German fighter escort. Three Stuka -crews were captured, 1 was wounded no dead. [148]
By 1943, the Allies enjoyed air supremacy in North Africa. The Ju 87s ventured out in Rotte strength only, often jettisoning their bombs at the first sight of enemy aircraft.[149] Adding to this trouble, the German fighters had only enough fuel to cover the Ju 87s on takeoff, their most vulnerable point. After that, the Stukas were on their own.[150]
The dive bombers continued operations in southern Europe; after the Italian surrender in September 1943, the Ju 87 participated in the last campaign-sized victory over the Western Allies, the Dodecanese Campaign. The Dodecanese Islands had been occupied by the British; the Luftwaffe committed 75 Stukas of StG 3 based in Megara (I./StG 3) and Argos (II.StG 3; from 17 October on Rhodes), to recover the islands. With the RAF bases 500 kilometres (310 mi) away, the Ju 87 helped the German landing forces rapidly conquer the islands.[151] On 5 October the minelayer Lagnano was sunk along with a patrol vessel, a steam ship and a light tank carrier Porto Di Roma. On 24 October Ju 87s sank the landing craft LCT115 and cargo ship Taganrog at Samos. On 31 October the light cruiser Aurora was put out of action for a year. The light cruisers Penelope and Carlisle were badly damaged by StG 3 and the destroyer Panther was also sunk by Ju 87s before the capitulation of the Allied force. It proved to be the Stuka's final victory against the British.[152]
Eastern front
Barbarossa; 1941
On 22 June 1941, the Wehrmacht commenced Operation Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union. The Luftwaffe order of battle of 22 June 1941 contained four dive bomber wings. VIII. Fliegerkorps was equipped with units Stab, II. and III./StG 1. Also included were Stab, I., II. and III. of Sturzkampfgeschwader 2 Immelmann. Attached to II. Fliegerkorps, under the command of General der Flieger Bruno Loerzer, were Stab, I., II. and III. of StG 77. Luftflotte 5, under the command of Generaloberst Hans-Jürgen Stumpff, operating from Norway's Arctic Circle, were allotted IV. Gruppe (St)/Lehrgeschwader 1 (LG 1).[153]
The first Stuka loss on the Soviet-German front occurred early at 03:40–03:47 in the morning of 22 June. While being escorted by Bf 109s from JG 51 to attack Brest Fortress, Oberleutnant Karl Führing of StG 77 was shot down by an I-153.[154] The dive bomber wing suffered only two losses on the opening day of Barbarossa. As a result of the Luftwaffe's attention, the Soviet Air Force in the western Soviet Union was nearly destroyed. The official report claimed 1,489 Soviet aircraft destroyed. Göring ordered this checked. After picking their way through the wreckage across the front, Luftwaffe officers found that the tally exceeded 2,000.[155] In the next two days, the Soviets reported the loss of another 1,922 aircraft.[156]
The Ju 87 took a huge toll on Soviet ground forces, helping to break up counterattacks of Soviet armour, eliminating strongpoints and disrupting the enemy supply lines. A demonstration of the Stuka's effectiveness occurred on 5 July, when StG 77 knocked out 18 trains and 500 vehicles.[157] As the 1st and 2nd Panzer Groups forced bridgeheads across the Dnieper river and closed in on Kyiv, the Ju 87s again rendered invaluable support. On 13 September, Stukas from StG 1 destroyed the rail network in the vicinity as well as inflicting heavy casualties on escaping Red Army columns, for the loss of one Ju 87.[158] On 23 September, Rudel (who was to become the most decorated serviceman in the Wehrmacht) of StG 2, sank the Soviet battleship Marat, during an air attack on Kronstadt harbour near Leningrad, with a hit to the bow with a single 1,000 kg (2,200 lb) bomb.[159] During this action, Leutnant Egbert Jaeckel sank the destroyer Minsk, while the destroyer Steregushchiy and submarine M-74 were also sunk. The Stukas also crippled the battleship Oktyabrskaya Revolutsiya and the destroyers Silnyy and Grozyashchiy in exchange for two Ju 87s shot down.[160]
Elsewhere on the Eastern front, the Junkers assisted Army Group Centre in its drive toward Moscow. From 13 to 22 December 420 vehicles and 23 tanks were destroyed by StG 77, greatly improving the morale of the German infantry, who were by now on the defensive.[161] StG 77 finished the campaign as the most effective dive bomber wing. It had destroyed 2,401 vehicles, 234 tanks, 92 artillery batteries and 21 trains for the loss of 25 Ju 87s to hostile action.[162] At the end of Barbarossa, StG 1 had lost 60 Stukas in aerial combat and one on the ground. StG 2 lost 39 Ju 87s in the air and two on the ground, StG 77 lost 29 of their dive-bombers in the air and three on the ground (25 to enemy action). IV.(St)/LG1, operating from Norway, lost 24 Ju 87s, all in aerial combat.[163]
Fall Blau to Stalingrad; 1942
In early 1942, the Ju 87s gave the Heer yet more valuable support. On 29 December 1941, the Soviet 44th Army landed on the Kerch Peninsula. The Luftwaffe was only able to dispatch meager reinforcements of four bomber groups (Kampfgruppen) and two dive bomber groups belonging to StG 77. With air superiority, the Ju 87s operated with impunity. In the first 10 days of the Battle of the Kerch Peninsula, half the landing force was destroyed, while sea lanes were blocked by the Stukas inflicting heavy losses on Soviet shipping. The Ju 87's effectiveness against Soviet armour was not yet potent. Later versions of the T-34 tank could withstand Stuka attack in general, unless a direct hit was scored but the Soviet 44th Army had only obsolescent types with thin armour which were nearly all destroyed.[164] During the Battle of Sevastopol, the Stukas repeatedly bombed the trapped Soviet forces. Some Ju 87 pilots flew up to 300 sorties against the Soviet defenders. StG 77 (Luftflotte 4) flew 7,708 combat sorties dropping 3,537 tonnes of bombs on the city. Their efforts help secure the capitulation of Soviet forces on 4 July.[165]
For the German summer offensive, Fall Blau, the Luftwaffe had concentrated 1,800 aircraft into Luftflotte 4 making it the largest and most powerful air command in the world.[166] The Stukawaffe strength stood at 151.[167] During the Battle of Stalingrad, Stukas flew thousands of sorties against Soviet positions in the city. StG 1, 2 and 77 flew 320 sorties on 14 October 1942. As the German Sixth Army pushed the Soviets into a 1,000-metre enclave on the west bank of the Volga River, 1,208 Stuka sorties were flown against this small strip of land. The intense air attack, though causing horrific losses on Soviet units, failed to destroy them.[168] The Luftwaffe's Stuka force made a maximum effort during this phase of the war. They flew an average of 500 sorties per day and caused heavy losses among Soviet forces, losing an average of only one Stuka per day. The Battle of Stalingrad marked the high point in the fortunes of the Junkers Ju 87 Stuka. As the strength of the Soviet Air Forces grew, they gradually wrested control of the skies from the Luftwaffe. From this point onward, Stuka losses increased.[169]
Kursk and decline; 1943
The Stuka was also heavily involved in Operation Citadel, the Kursk offensive. The Luftwaffe committed I, II, III./St.G 1 and III./StG 3 under the command of Luftflotte 6. I., II, III. of StGs 2 and 3 were committed under the command of Fliegerkorps VIII.[170] Rudel's cannon-equipped Ju 87 Gs had a devastating effect on Soviet armour at Orel and Belgorod. The Ju 87s participated in a huge aerial counter-offensive lasting from 16 to 31 July against a Soviet offensive at Khotynets and saved two German armies from encirclement, reducing the attacking Soviet 11th Guards Army to 33 tanks by 20 July. The Soviet offensive had been completely halted from the air[171] although losses were considerable. Fliegerkorps VIII lost eight Ju 87s on 8 July, six on 9 July, six on 10 July and another eight on 11 July. The Stuka arm also lost eight of their Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross holders. StG 77 lost 24 Ju 87s in the period 5–31 July (StG had lost 23 in July–December 1942), while StG 2 lost another 30 aircraft in the same period. In September 1943, three of the Stuka units were re-equipped with the Fw 190F and G (ground attack versions) and began to be renamed Schlachtgeschwader (attack wings).[172] In the face of overwhelming air opposition, the dive-bomber required heavy protection from German fighters to counter Soviet fighters. Some units like SG 2 Immelmann continued to operate with great success throughout 1943–45, operating the Ju 87 G variants equipped with 37 mm cannons, which became tank killers, although in increasingly small numbers.[173]
In the wake of the defeat at Kursk, Ju 87s played a vital defensive role on the southern wing of the Eastern Front. To combat the Luftwaffe, the Soviets could deploy 3,000 fighter aircraft. As a result, the Stukas suffered heavily. SG 77 lost 30 Ju 87s in August 1943 as did SG 2 Immelmann, which also reported the loss of 30 aircraft in combat operations.[174] Despite these losses, Ju 87s helped the XXIX Army Corps break out of an encirclement near the Sea of Azov.[175] The Battle of Kiev also included substantial use of the Ju 87 units, although again, unsuccessful in stemming the advances. Stuka units were with the loss of air superiority, becoming vulnerable on the ground as well. Some Stuka aces were lost this way.[176] In the aftermath of Kursk, Stuka strength fell to 184 aircraft in total. This was well below 50 percent of the required strength.[177] On 18 October 1943, StG 1, 2, 3, 5 and 77 were renamed Schlachtgeschwader (SG) wings, reflecting their ground-attack role, as these combat wings were now also using ground-attack aircraft, such as the Fw 190F-series aircraft. The Luftwaffe's dive-bomber units had ceased to exist.[178]
A few Ju 87s were also retained for anti-shipping operations in the Black Sea, a role it had proved successful in when operating in the Mediterranean. In October 1943, this became evident again when StG 3 carried out several attacks against the Soviet Black Sea Fleet. On 6 October 1943 the most powerful flotilla in the fleet comprising the Leningrad class destroyers Kharkov, Besposhchadny and Sposobny were caught and sunk by dive -bombing. After the disaster, Josef Stalin decreed that no more ships were to pass within range of German aircraft without his personal permission.[179]
Operation Bagration to Berlin 1944–1945
Towards the end of the war, as the Allies gained air supremacy, the Stuka was being replaced by ground-attack versions of the Fw 190.[33] By early 1944, the number of Ju 87 units and operational aircraft terminally declined. For the Soviet summer offensive, Operation Bagration, 12 Ju 87 groups and five mixed groups (including Fw 190s) were on the Luftwaffe's order of battle on 26 June 1944.[180] Gefechtsverband Kuhlmey, a mixed aircraft unit, which included large numbers of Stuka dive bombers, was rushed to the Finnish front in the summer of 1944 and was instrumental in halting the Soviet fourth strategic offensive. The unit claimed 200 Soviet tanks and 150 Soviet aircraft destroyed for 41 losses.[181] By 31 January 1945, only 104 Ju 87s remained operational with their units. The other mixed Schlacht units contained a further 70 Ju 87s and Fw 190s between them. Chronic fuel shortages kept the Stukas grounded and sorties decreased until the end of the war in May 1945.[182]
In the final months of the war the ground attack groups were still able to impose operational constraints upon the enemy. Most notably the aircraft participated in the defence of Berlin. On 12 January 1945 the 1st Belorussian Front initiated the Vistula–Oder Offensive. The offensive made rapid progress. The Soviets eventually outran their air support which was unable to use forward, quagmire-filled, airfields. The Germans, who had fallen back on air bases with good facilities and concrete runways, were able to mount uninterrupted attacks against Soviet army columns. Reminiscent of the early years, the Luftwaffe was able to inflict high losses largely unopposed. Over 800 vehicles were destroyed within two weeks. In the first three days of February 1945, 2,000 vehicles and 51 tanks were lost to German air attacks. The Belorussian Front was forced to abandon its attempt to capture Berlin by mid-February 1945. The Ju 87 participated in these intense battles in small numbers. It was the largest concentration of German air power since 1940 and even in February 1945 the Germans were able to achieve and challenge for air superiority on the Eastern Front. The air offensive was instrumental in saving Berlin, albeit only for three months. The effort exhausted German fuel reserves. The contribution of the Ju 87 was exemplified by Rudel, who claimed 13 enemy tanks on 8 February 1945.[183]
Operadores
- Bulgaria
- Bulgarian Air Forceb
- Independent State of Croatia
- Zrakoplovstvo Nezavisne Države Hrvatskeb
- Czechoslovakia
- Czechoslovakian Air Force operated captured aircraft postwar.b
- Nazi Germany
- Luftwaffe
- Kingdom of Hungary
- Royal Hungarian Air Forceb
- Kingdom of Italy
- Regia Aeronauticab
- Empire of Japan
- Imperial Japanese Army Air Forceb Purchased two aircraft from Germany for evaluation.
- Kingdom of Romania
- Royal Romanian Air Forceb
- Slovak Republic
- Slovak Air Forceb
- Spain
- Spanish Air Force
- United Kingdom
- Royal Air Force tested various captured variants during and after the war.[184]
- United States
- United States Army Air Forces tested various captured variants during and after the war.
- Yugoslavia
- SFR Yugoslav Air Force operated captured aircraft.
Aviones supervivientes
Two intact Ju 87s survive, with a third being restored:
- Ju 87 G-2, Werk Nr. 494083
A later, ground-attack variant, this is displayed at the Royal Air Force Museum in London; it was captured by British forces at Eggebek, Schleswig-Holstein in May 1945. It is thought to have been built in 1943–1944 as a D-5 before being rebuilt as a G-2 variant, possibly by fitting G-2 outer wings to a D-5 airframe. The wings have the hard-points for Bordkanone BK 3,7 gun-pods, but these are not fitted. It was one of 12 captured German aircraft selected by the British for museum preservation and assigned to the Air Historical Branch. The aircraft was stored and displayed at various RAF sites until 1978, when it was moved to the RAF Museum. In 1967, permission was given to use the aircraft in the film Battle of Britain and it was repainted and modified to resemble a 1940 variant of the Ju 87. The engine was found to be in excellent condition and there was little difficulty in starting it, but returning the aircraft to airworthiness was considered too costly for the filmmakers, and ultimately, models were used in the film to represent Stukas. In 1998, the film modifications were removed, and the aircraft returned to the original G-2 configuration.[186]
- Ju 87 R-2/Trop. Werk Nr. 5954
This aircraft is displayed in the Chicago Museum of Science and Industry. It was abandoned in North Africa and found by British forces in 1941. The Ju 87 was donated by the British government and sent to the US during the war. It was fully restored in 1974 by the EAA of Wisconsin.[187]
One Ju 87 is under restoration:
- Ju 87 R-4, Werk Nr. 6234 (incorporating 857509)
One aircraft is being restored to airworthy condition from two wrecks, owned by Paul Allen's Flying Heritage & Combat Armor Museum.[188] The project takes its identification from Ju 87 R-4 Werk Nr. 6234, which was built in 1941 and served with Stukageschwader 5. Shot down in April 1942 on a mission to bomb Murmansk,[189] it was recovered in 1992. The wreck was purchased by New Zealand collector Tim Wallis, who originally planned for a rebuild to airworthy status, and later went to the Deutsches Technikmuseum in Berlin. Parts from a second airframe, a Ju 87 R-2 Werknummer 857509 which served bearing the Stammkennzeichen of code LI+KU from 1./St.G.5, and was recovered to the United Kingdom in 1998,[190] have also been incorporated. The project was displayed in November 2018 and the restoration was stated to take between 18 months and two years to complete. Work will be conducted in a display hangar to allow the public to observe the work underway.
Other aircraft survive as wreckage recovered from crash sites:
- The Deutsches Technikmuseum in Berlin has the wreckage of two complete aircraft that were recovered from separate crash sites near Murmansk in 1990 and 1994. These wrecks were purchased from New Zealand collector Tim Wallis, who originally planned for the remains to be restored to airworthy, in 1996.[191]
- The Sinsheim Auto & Technik Museum displays the remains of an aircraft that crashed near Saint-Tropez in 1944 and was raised from the seabed in 1989.[192]
- In October 2006, a Ju 87 D-3/Trop. was recovered underwater, near Rhodes. The aircraft is now in the Hellenic Air Force Museum[193]
- Junkers Ju 87 B-2, Code 98+01, Werk Nr. 870406, is on display at the Yugoslav Aeronautical Museum, Belgrade.[194] The parts of three others have been found (S2+?? [StG 77]; H4+?? [Luftlandegeschwader 1]; 5B+?? [Nachtschlachtgruppe 10])[185]
- Junkers Ju 87 B-3 Werk Nr. 110757 found in the village Krościenko Wyżne in Poland in October 2015.[195]
Ju 87 wreck, Sinsheim Auto & Technik Museum (2008)
Deutsches Technikmuseum, with a veteran gunner speaking of his combat in North Africa
The Ju 87 at the Hellenic Air Force Museum, Greece
Especificaciones (Ju 87B-1)
Data from [196]
General characteristics
- Crew: 2
- Length: 11.10 m (36 ft 5 in)
- Wingspan: 13.805 m (45 ft 3.5 in)
- Height: 4.01 m (13 ft 2 in)
- Wing area: 31.900 m2 (343.37 sq ft)
- Airfoil: Göttingen 256[197]
- Empty weight: 2,712 kg (5,980 lb) * Empty equipped weight: 2,760 kg (6,090 lb)
- Max takeoff weight: 4,336 kg (9,560 lb)
- Powerplant: 1 × Junkers Jumo 211Da V-12 inverted liquid-cooled piston engine, 890 kW (1,200 hp) for take-off
- 820 kW (1,100 hp) at 1,500 m (4,920 ft)
- Propellers: 3-bladed Junkers constant-speed propeller
Performance
- Maximum speed: 339.6 km/h (211.0 mph, 183.4 kn) at sea level
- 383 km/h (238 mph; 207 kn) at 4,087 m (13,410 ft)
- Cruise speed: 209 km/h (130 mph, 113 kn) at 4,572 m (15,000 ft)
- Range: 595.5 km (370.0 mi, 321.5 nmi) with 500 kg (1,102 lb) bomb
- 789 km (490 mi; 426 nmi) without bomb load
- Rate of climb: 2.3 m/s (450 ft/min)
- Time to altitude: 1,000 m (3,281 ft) in 2 minutes
- 2,000 m (6,562 ft) in 4 minutes 18 seconds
- 3,716 m (12,190 ft) in 12 minutes
Armament
- Guns: 2× 7.92 mm (0.312 in) MG 17 machine gun forward, 1× 7.92 mm (0.312 in) MG 15 machine gun to rear
- Bombs: 1× 250 kg (550 lb) bomb beneath the fuselage and 4× 50 kg (110 lb) under-wing.
Ver también
Related development
- Junkers Ju 187
Aircraft of comparable role, configuration, and era
- Aichi D3A
- Blackburn Skua
- Breda Ba.65
- Douglas SBD Dauntless
- Ilyushin Il-2
- Loire-Nieuport LN.401
- Nakajima B5N
- Saab 17
- Vultee A-31 Vengeance
Related lists
- List of aircraft of World War II
- List of military aircraft of Germany
- List of bomber aircraft
Notas
- a Figures are debated. Griehl cites additions of Chief engineer Pichon's list. This indicates 5,930 produced. Griehl points out this may include all machines, even those that were incomplete. Junkers records give 5,126 aircraft delivered to the Luftwaffe.[198]
- b The first of Germany's allies to receive Stukas was Italy. Regia Aeronautica received a delivery of 46 Ju 87 D-2 and D-3 dive bombers and some Ju 87 R-2s.[199] Bulgaria received 12 Ju 87 R-2 and R-4s and 40 Ju 87 D-5s.[200] Japan received the Ju 87 A-1 (called a Ju 87 K-1). The Croats received Ju 87s, delivered to the Lucko bomber unit in January 1944. The Romanians received 90 Ju 87 D-3 and D-5s.[201] Hungary received 33/34 Ju 87 D-3/D-5s and 11/12 B-1 and B-2s.[202] The Slovaks received unknown numbers of Ju 87s. After the war it is claimed five Ju 87 D-5s, registrations OK-XAA – OK-XAE, were operated by the Czechs after the war as "B-37" registration OK-KAC.[203]
- c Werknummer (W.Nr) means "Works Number" of the factory. The number can usually be found on the vertical stabiliser of all German military aircraft of the Second World War.
Referencias
- ^ a b c Griehl 2001, p. 37
- ^ Griehl 2001, pp. 38–39
- ^ a b c Griehl 2001, p. 38
- ^ Murray 1983, p. 13
- ^ Murray 1983, p. 16
- ^ a b Griehl & Dressel 1998, p. 53
- ^ Erfurth 2004, p. 27
- ^ Griehl 2001, p. 40
- ^ Griehl 2001, p. 41
- ^ Ward 2004, p. 28
- ^ Mondey 1996, pp. 111–118
- ^ Ward 2004, p. 27
- ^ Ward 2004, p. 41
- ^ Griehl 2001, pp. 42–44
- ^ a b Ward 2004, p. 31
- ^ Griehl 2001, p. 44
- ^ Griehl 2001, p. 46
- ^ Griehl 2001, p. 47
- ^ Griehl 2001, pp. 52–53
- ^ a b c d e f Erfurth 2004, p. 48
- ^ a b c Erfurth 2004, p. 50
- ^ Green 1979, pp. 438–439
- ^ a b Erfurth 2004, p. 49
- ^ Gunston 1984, p. 122
- ^ a b c d e f Griehl 2001, p. 61
- ^ Mahlke 2013, p. 132
- ^ Just 1986, p. 54
- ^ Thompson & Smith 2008, pp. 235–236
- ^ Erfurth 2004, p. 52
- ^ Erfurth 2004, p. 53
- ^ a b Erfurth 2004, p. 54
- ^ Dressel & Griehl 1994, pp. 100–105
- ^ a b Griehl 2001, p. 179
- ^ a b Griehl 2001, p. 50
- ^ a b c Griehl 2001, p. 52
- ^ Griehl 2001, p. 53
- ^ Griehl 2001, p. 54
- ^ Griehl 2001, p. 57
- ^ Erfurth 2004, p. 40
- ^ Erfurth 2004, p. 42
- ^ a b Griehl 2001, p. 63
- ^ Griehl 2001, p. 64
- ^ Griehl 2001, pp. 64–65
- ^ a b Boyne 1994, p. 30
- ^ Griehl 2001, p. 65
- ^ Griehl 2001, p. 66
- ^ a b Griehl 2001, p. 68
- ^ a b Griehl 2001, p. 79
- ^ Griehl 2001, pp. 80–81
- ^ a b c Griehl 2001, p. 49
- ^ a b c Griehl 2001, p. 240
- ^ Griehl 2001, p. 241
- ^ a b Griehl 2001, p. 242
- ^ Griehl 2001, p. 243
- ^ Mondey 1996, p. 114
- ^ Griehl 2001, p. 87
- ^ a b c d e Griehl 2001, p. 95
- ^ a b Griehl 2001, p. 99
- ^ Griehl 2001, p. 97
- ^ Griehl 2001, p. 98
- ^ a b c Griehl 2001, pp. 101–102
- ^ a b Griehl 2001, p. 102
- ^ a b Griehl 2001, p. 103
- ^ a b c d Griehl 2001, p. 284
- ^ Griehl 2001, p. 274
- ^ Griehl 2001, pp. 274–275
- ^ Griehl 2001, p. 286
- ^ Coram 2004, p. 235
- ^ Smith 2011, p. 349
- ^ Griehl 2001, p. 209
- ^ Smith 2011, pp. 352–353
- ^ Smith 2011, pp. 352–353
- ^ Smith 2011, pp. 352–353
- ^ Griehl 2001, p. 210
- ^ Griehl 2001, pp. 210–212
- ^ Parker 1998, p. 208
- ^ Ward 2004, p. 200
- ^ Smith 2011, p. 354
- ^ Smith 2011, pp. 356, 363
- ^ Smith 2011, p. 364
- ^ a b Griehl 2001, p. 115
- ^ a b c d e f Griehl 2001, pp. 116–117
- ^ a b c Griehl 2001, p. 118
- ^ a b c Griehl 2001, p. 120
- ^ Griehl 2001, pp. 120–121
- ^ Griehl 2001, pp. 131–133
- ^ Griehl 2001, p. 134
- ^ a b Weal 1997, p. 15
- ^ Gesalí & Íñiguez 2012, pp. 470–472
- ^ Gesalí & Íñiguez 2012, pp. 478–480
- ^ Gesalí & Íñiguez 2012, pp. 482–484
- ^ Weal 1997, pp. 15–16
- ^ Weal 1997, p. 17
- ^ Weal 1997, pp. 18–19
- ^ Weal 1997, pp. 21–22
- ^ Smith 2011, pp. 87–88
- ^ a b Weal 1997, p. 22
- ^ Smith 2011, p. 98
- ^ Hooton 2007, p. 91
- ^ Smith 2011, p. 101
- ^ Smith 2011, pp. 96–97
- ^ a b c Weal 1997, p. 34
- ^ Weal 1997, pp. 34–35
- ^ a b Weal 1997, p. 35
- ^ Smith 2011, p. 114
- ^ a b Smith 2011, p. 118
- ^ Smith 2011, pp. 113–115
- ^ Weal 1997, p. 37
- ^ Ward 2004, pp. 68–69
- ^ Smith 2011, p. 116
- ^ a b Weal 1997, p. 43
- ^ a b Smith 2011, p. 124
- ^ Weal 1997, p. 46
- ^ Ward 2004, pp. 73–74
- ^ Boyne 1994, p. 78
- ^ Smith 2011, pp. 124, 131–140
- ^ Hooton 2007, p. 67
- ^ Smith 2011, p. 138
- ^ Weal 1997, pp. 52–53
- ^ Smith 2011, pp. 138–140
- ^ Hooton 2007, p. 74
- ^ Weal 1997, p. 55
- ^ Ward 2004, p. 94
- ^ Weal 1997, pp. 66–67
- ^ Ward 2004, p. 105
- ^ Bungay 2000, pp. 251–257
- ^ Weal 1997, p. 83
- ^ a b Ward 2004, pp. 108–109
- ^ Weal 1997, p. 66
- ^ a b c d Smith 2007, p. 51
- ^ Wood & Dempster 2003, p. 228
- ^ Ward 2004, p. 109
- ^ Weal 1998, p. 7
- ^ Weal 1998, p. 9
- ^ a b Gunston 1984, p. 137
- ^ Weal 1998, p. 23
- ^ Smith 2011, p. 218
- ^ Ward 2004, p. 120
- ^ Ciglic & Savic 2007, p. 59
- ^ Weal 1998, p. 32
- ^ Ward 2004, p. 121
- ^ Weal 1998, p. 38
- ^ Weal 1998, pp. 38–39
- ^ Ward 2004, p. 123
- ^ Weal 1998, pp. 45–51
- ^ Weal 1998, p. 44
- ^ Weal 1998, p. 65
- ^ Ring/Hans Ring/ Christopher shores, Luftkampf zwischen Sand und Sonne.Stuttgart 1968, English Title "Fighters over the Desert" London 1968
- ^ Weal 1998, p. 67
- ^ Weal 1998, p. 68
- ^ Weal 1998, pp. 82–83
- ^ Smith 2011, pp. 305–314
- ^ Bergström 2007 (Barbarossa title), p. 131.
- ^ Bergström 2007 (Barbarossa title), p. 18.
- ^ Bergström 2007 (Barbarossa title), p. 20.
- ^ Bergström 2007 (Barbarossa title), p. 23.
- ^ Bergström 2007 (Barbarossa title), p. 89.
- ^ Bergström 2007 (Barbarossa title), p. 69.
- ^ Just 1986, p. 19
- ^ Bergström 2007 (Barbarossa title), p. 85.
- ^ Bergström 2007 (Barbarossa title), pp. 112–113.
- ^ Bergström 2007 (Barbarossa title), p. 115.
- ^ Bergström 2007 (Barbarossa title), p. 119.
- ^ Bergström 2007 (Stalingrad title), p. 30.
- ^ Bergström 2007 (Stalingrad title), p. 46.
- ^ Bergström 2007 (Stalingrad title), p. 122.
- ^ Bergström 2007 (Stalingrad title), p. 49.
- ^ Bergström 2007 (Stalingrad title), p. 84.
- ^ Hayward 2001, p. 211
- ^ Bergström 2007 (Kursk title), pp. 123–124.
- ^ Bergström 2007 (Kursk title), p 109
- ^ Bergström 2007 (Kursk title), p. 118.
- ^ Griehl 2001, p. 279
- ^ Bergström 2008, pp. 25–26
- ^ Bergström 2008, p. 27
- ^ Bergström 2008, p. 30
- ^ Weal 2008, p. 74
- ^ Weal 2008, p. 77
- ^ Smith 2011, p. 292
- ^ Bergström 2008, p. 129
- ^ Bergström 2008, p. 59
- ^ Bergström 2008, p. 131
- ^ Bergström 2008, pp. 99–100
- ^ "The Stuka Stealers". Aeroplane, February 2009, pp. 14–18.
- ^ a b Bert, Hartmann. "Das Archiv der Deutschen Luftwaffe". www.luftarchiv.de.
- ^ Smith 2011, pp. 382–383
- ^ Vanags-Baginskis 1982, p. 51
- ^ "FHCAM – Home". Flyingheritage.org. Retrieved 20 September 2018.
- ^ Flying Heritage Stuka Project
- ^ Smith 2011, p. 387
- ^ Smith 2011, pp. 385–387
- ^ Smith 2011, p. 387
- ^ Smith 2011, p. 387
- ^ Smith 2011, p. 387
- ^ "Odnaleziono wrak bombowca sprzed 71 lat. W jego wnętrzu znajdowały się szczątki pilota". onet.rzeszow (in Polish). Grupa Onet.pl S.A. 12 November 2015. Retrieved 29 November 2016.
- ^ Green 1979, pp. 428–445
- ^ Lednicer, David. "The Incomplete Guide to Airfoil Usage". m-selig.ae.illinois.edu. Retrieved 16 April 2019.
- ^ Griehl 2001, pp. 129–130
- ^ Vanags-Baginskis 1982, p. 52
- ^ Griehl 2001, p. 135
- ^ Griehl 2001, p. 150
- ^ Griehl 2001, pp. 151–152
- ^ Griehl 2001, p. 156
Bibliografía
- Bergström, Christer (2008). Bagration to Berlin – The Final Air Battles in the East: 1944–1945. London: Ian Allan. ISBN 978-1-903223-91-8.
- Bergström, Christer (2007). Barbarossa – The Air Battle: July–December 1941. London: Chevron/Ian Allan. ISBN 978-1-85780-270-2.
- Bergström, Christer (2007). Kursk – The Air Battle: July 1943. London: Chevron/Ian Allan. ISBN 978-1-903223-88-8.
- Bergström, Christer (2007). Stalingrad – The Air Battle: November 1942–February 1943. London: Chevron/Ian Allan. ISBN 978-1-85780-276-4..
- Boyne, W. J. (1994). Clash of Wings. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-83915-6.
- Bungay, Stephen (2000). The Most Dangerous Enemy: A History of the Battle of Britain. London: Aurum. ISBN 1-85410-721-6.
- Ciglic, Boris; Savic, Dragan (2007). Dornier Do 17 – The Yugoslav Story: Operational Record 1937–1947. Belgrade: Jeroplan. ISBN 978-86-909727-0-8.
- Coram, Robert (2004). Boyd: The Fighter Pilot Who Changed the Art of War. New York: Back Bay Books. ISBN 0-316-79688-3.
- Dressel, Joachim; Griehl, Manfred (1994). Bombers of the Luftwaffe. London: DAG. ISBN 1-85409-140-9.
- Erfurth, Helmut (2004). Junkers Ju 87. Black Cross. V. Bonn: Bernard & Graefe Verlag. ISBN 1-85780-186-5.
- Gesalí, David; Íñiguez, David (2012). La guerra aèria a Catalunya (1936–1939) [The Air War over Catalonia] (in Catalan). Barcelona: Rafael Dalmau, Editor. ISBN 978-84-232-0775-6.
- Green, William (1979) [1970]. Warplanes of the Third Reich (2nd ed.). London: Macdonald and Jane's. ISBN 0-356-02382-6.
- Griehl, Manfred (2001). Junker Ju 87 Stuka. London/Stuttgart: Airlife/Motorbuch. ISBN 1-84037-198-6.
- Griehl, Manfred; Dressel, Joachim (1998). Heinkel He 177 – 277–274. Shrewsbury: Airlife. ISBN 1-85310-364-0.
- Gunston, Bill (1984). Gli aerei della 2a guerra mondiale [The Aircraft of the Second World War]. Grande enciclopedia delle armi moderne (in Italian). Milano: Alberto Peruzzo Editore. OCLC 797533857.
- Hayward, J. S. (2001). Stopped at Stalingrad: The Luftwaffe and Hitler's Defeat in the East 1942–1943. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas. ISBN 0-7006-1146-0.
- Hooton, E. R. (2007). Luftwaffe at War; Blitzkrieg in the West. II. London: Chevron/Ian Allan. ISBN 978-1-85780-272-6.
- Just, Gunther (1986). Stuka Pilot Hans Ulrich Rudel. Atglen, PA: Schiffer. ISBN 0-88740-252-6.
- Mahlke, Helmut (2013). Memoirs of a Stuka Pilot. Translated by Weal, John. Frontline Books. ISBN 978-1-84832-664-4.
- Mondey, David (1996). Axis Aircraft of World War II. London: Chancellor Press. ISBN 1-85152-966-7.
- Murray, Willamson (1983). Strategy for Defeat: The Luftwaffe 1935–1945. Maxwell AFB, AL: Air Power Research Institute. ISBN 0-16-002160-X.
- Parker, Danny (1998). To Win the Winter Sky: Air War over the Ardennes, 1944-1945. Pennsylvania: Combined. ISBN 0-938289-35-7.
- Smith, Peter C. (2007). Ju 87 Stuka: Luftwaffe Ju 87 Dive-Bomber Units 1939–1941. I. London: Classic. ISBN 978-1-903223-69-7.
- Smith, Peter C. (2011). The Junkers Ju 87 Stuka: A Complete History. London: Crecy. ISBN 978-0-85979-156-4.
- Thompson, Steve J.; Smith, Peter C. (2008). Air Combat Manoeuvres. Hersham: Ian Allan. ISBN 978-1-903223-98-7.
- Vanags-Baginskis, Alex (1982). Ju 87 Stuka. London: Jane's. ISBN 0-7106-0191-3.
- Ward, John (2004). Hitler's Stuka Squadrons: The Ju 87 at War, 1936–1945. London: Eagles of War. ISBN 1-86227-246-8.
- Weal, John (1997). Junkers Ju 87 Stukageschwader 1937–41. Oxford: Osprey. ISBN 1-85532-636-1.
- Weal, John (1998). Junkers Ju 87 Stukageschwader of North Africa and the Mediterranean. Oxford: Osprey. ISBN 1-85532-722-8.
- Weal, John (2008). Junkers Ju 87 Stukageschwader of the Russian Front. Oxford: Osprey. ISBN 978-1-84603-308-7.
- Willigenburg, Henk van (March–April 2001). "Graft Zeppelin Afloat". Air Enthusiast (92): 59–65. ISSN 0143-5450.
- Wood, Derek; Dempster, Derek (2003). The Narrow Margin: The Battle of Britain and the Rise of Air Power. London: Pen and Sword. ISBN 0-85052-915-8.
Otras lecturas
- de Zeng, H.L., D.G. Stanket and E.J. Creek. Bomber Units of the Luftwaffe 1933–1945: A Reference Source, Volume 1. London: Ian Allan Publishing, 2007. ISBN 978-1-85780-279-5
- de Zeng, H.L., D.G. Stanket and E.J. Creek. Bomber Units of the Luftwaffe 1933–1945: A Reference Source, Volume 2. London: Ian Allan Publishing, 2007. ISBN 978-1-903223-87-1
- Eisenbach, Hans Peter. Fronteinsätze eines Stuka-Fliegers: Mittelmeer und Ostfront 1943/1944 (in German). Berlin: Helios Verlag, 2009. ISBN 978-3-938208-96-0
enlaces externos
- Test flight and combat debut of the "Kanonenvogel" – wartime video on YouTube
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