Kanato de Kara-Khanid

Turkic dynasty

Este artículo trata sobre el estado turco. Para el estado de Khitan, vea Qara Khitai . Para el idioma llamado Karakhanid, consulte Idiomas del Turco Medio .

Kanato de Kara-Khanid
840–1212
Kara Khanid Khanate, c. 1000.
Estado	Khaganate
Capital	Balasagun (942-1130) Kashgar (1130-1211) Samarcanda (1040-1212)
Lenguajes comunes	Árabe [1] Chino medio [2] [3] (administrativo) Turco medio [4] (literatura) Persa [5] (poesía)
Religión	Tengrismo (840–934) Islam (934-1212)
Gobierno	Monarquía
Khagan
• 840–893 (primero)	Bilge Kul Qadir Khan
• 1204–1212 (último)	Uthman Ulugh-Sultan
Hajib ( canciller )
• Siglo 11	Yūsuf Balasaguni
Historia
• Establecido	840
• Desestablecido	1212
Precedido por Sucesor Karluk Yabghu Khaganato uigur Samanids Reino de Khotan Dinastía Khwarazmian Qara Khitai

Parte de una serie sobre el
Historia de Asia Central
Antiguo
Escitia Dingling / Tiele Saka Kangju Hunos
Edad media
Sogdianos 200 a 1000 Heftalitas 440 a 710 Göktürks 552–745 Karluks 665–744 Kimek Khanate 743–1220 Estado de Oghuz Yabgu 750–1055 Kanato de Kara-Khanid 840–1212 Qara Khitai 1124-1218 Imperio mongol 1206-1368 horda de Oro 1240 a 1446
Período de colonización
Turquestán ruso 1867-1918
Gran período de juego
Historia de Asia Central XIX ad–
Temas
Deportes
v t mi

El Qarajanida ( persa : قراخانیان , romanized :  Qarākhāniyān ), también conocido como el Karakhanids , Qarakhanids , Ilek Khanids ^[6] o los Afrasiabids ( persa : آل افراسیاب , romanized :  Al-i Afrasiyab , lit.  'House de Afrasiab '), era un kanato turco que gobernaba Asia Centralen el siglo IX hasta principios del XIII. Los nombres dinásticos de Karakhanids e Ilek Khanids se refieren a títulos reales, siendo Kara Kağan el título turco más importante hasta el final de la dinastía. ^[7]

El Kanato conquistó Transoxiana en Asia Central y la gobernó entre 999 y 1211. ^{[8] [9]} Su llegada a Transoxiana marcó un cambio definitivo del predominio iraní al turco en Asia Central, ^[10] sin embargo, los Kara-khanids asimilaron gradualmente la cultura musulmana persoárabe, conservando parte de su cultura turca nativa. ^[5]

Las capitales del kanato de Kara-Khanid incluían Kashgar , Balasagun , Uzgen y Samarcanda . En la década de 1040, el kanato se dividió en kanatos oriental y occidental. A finales del siglo XI, quedaron bajo la soberanía de los selyúcidas , seguidos por los kara-khitans a mediados del siglo XII. El Kanato Oriental terminó en 1211 y el Kanato Occidental fue extinguido por la dinastía Khwarazmian en 1213.

La historia del kanato Kara-Khanid se reconstruye a partir de fuentes escritas fragmentarias y a menudo contradictorias, así como de estudios sobre su acuñación . ^[11]

Nombres

El término Karakhanid se derivó de Qara Khan o Qara Khaqan ( persa : قراخان , romanizado :  Qarākhān ), el título principal de los gobernantes de la dinastía. ^[12] La palabra "Kara" significa "negro" y también "valiente" del antiguo turco (𐰴𐰺𐰀) y khan significa gobernante. El término fue ideado por orientalistas europeos en el siglo XIX para describir tanto a la dinastía como a los turcos gobernados por ella. ^[10]

• Las fuentes árabes musulmanas llamaron a esta dinastía al-Khaqaniya ("La de los Khaqans") o al Muluk al-Khaniyya al-Atrak (Los reyes Khanal de los turcos).
• Las fuentes persas a menudo usaban el término Al-i Afrasiyab ( persa : آل افراسیاب , romanizado :  Āl-i Afrāsiyāb , literalmente  'Casa de Afrisyab') basado en un supuesto vínculo con el legendario, aunque en realidad no relacionado, rey Afrasiab de Transoxania preislámica. . ^[10] Mahmud al-Kashgari se refiere a él como Alp Er Tunga . ^[13]
• También se les conoce como Ilek Khanids o Ilak Khanids ( persa : ایلک خانیان , romanizado :  Ilak-Khānīyān ) en persa. ^[5]
• Las fuentes chinas se refieren a esta dinastía como Kalahan ( chino :喀喇 汗) o Heihan ( chino :黑 汗, literalmente "Black Khan") o Dashi ( chino :大 食, un término para los árabes que se extiende a los musulmanes en general). ^{[14] [15]}

Historia

Origen

El Qarajanida originó a partir de una confederación formada alguna vez en el siglo noveno por Karluks , Yagmas , Chigils , y otros pueblos que viven en Zhetysu , Western Tian Shan (moderna Kirguistán ), y la occidental de Xinjiang alrededor de Kashgar . ^[10] El historiador árabe del siglo X Al-Masudi enumeró dos "Khagan de Khagans" de la horda Karluk: ^[16] Sanah, una posible interpretación de Ashina (compárese con Śaya (también de al-Masudi), Aś (i) nas ( al-Tabari), Ānsa (Hudud al-'Alam) y Śaba (Ibn Khordadbeh) ^[17] ), y Afrasiab,^{[18] a} quien el erudito Karakhanid del siglo XI Mahmud al-Kashgari identificó con el rey turco Alp Er Tunga , el legendario progenitor de la dinastía gobernante Karakhanid. ^[19] Además, los jefes de estado Kara-khanid reclamaron el título de khagan , lo que indica que pueden haber sido descendientes de Ashina. ^[20] Aun así, el origen tribal de Bilge Kul Qadir Khan, el primer Kara-Khan, aún se desconoce: si Bilge Kul Qadir descendía de los Karluk Yabghus , entonces pertenecía a la dinastía Ashina como ellos; si Bilge Kul Qadir desciende del Yagma (como sugiere Vasily Bartold ), ^[21]luego no lo hizo, considerando que el Hudud al-'Alam declaró que "Su rey [Yagmas '] es de la familia de los reyes Toġuzġuz ", ^[22] que la tribu Ashina no figuraba entre los Toquz Oghuz (Cap. 九姓Jĭu Xìng "Nueve apellidos") en fuentes en chino ^{[23] [24]} y que los primeros khagans uigur pertenecían al clan Yaglakar de Toquz Oghuz ^[25] y más tarde los khagans uigur pertenecían al clan Ädiz . ^[26] Alternativamente, Bilge Kul Qadir podría pertenecer a los Eðgiş o Chigil . ^[27]

Historia temprana

Ver también: Cronología de los Karluks

Los karluks eran un pueblo nómada del oeste de las montañas de Altai que se trasladaron a Zhetysu. En 742, los Karluk formaron parte de una alianza liderada por Basmyl y Uyghurs que se rebelaron contra los Göktürks . ^[28] En la realineación del poder que siguió, los Karluks fueron elevados de una tribu liderada por un Elteber a una liderada por un yabghu , que era uno de los más altos dignatarios turcos y también implica pertenecer a Ashina.clan en el que residía el derecho de gobernar "impuesto por el cielo". Más tarde, los karluks y los uigures se aliaron contra los basmyl y en dos años derrocaron al basmyl khagan. El yabghu uigur se convirtió en khagan y el líder karluk yabghu. Este arreglo duró menos de un año. Las hostilidades entre los uigures y los karluk obligaron a los karluk a migrar hacia el oeste hacia las tierras occidentales de Turgesh . ^[29]

En 766, los Karluk habían forzado la sumisión de los Turgesh y establecieron su capital en Suyab en el río Chu . La confederación Karluk ahora incluía a las tribus Chigil y Tukshi que pueden haber sido tribus Türgesh incorporadas a la unión Karluk. A mediados del siglo IX, la confederación Karluk había ganado el control de las tierras sagradas de los Türks occidentales después de la destrucción del Jaganato uigur por parte del Viejo Kirguiz . El control de las tierras sagradas, junto con su afiliación con el clan Ashina, permitió que el Khaganate pasara a los Karluks junto con el dominio de las estepas después de que el Khagan anterior fuera asesinado en una revuelta. ^[30]

Durante el siglo IX, el sur de Asia central estaba bajo el dominio de los samánidas , mientras que la estepa de Asia central estaba dominada por nómadas turcos como los pechenegos , los turcos oghuz y los karluks. El dominio de los Karluks llegaba tan al norte como Irtysh y la confederación Kimek , con campamentos que se extendían hasta los ríos Chi e Ili, donde vivían las tribus Chigil y Tukshi, y al este hasta el valle de Ferghana y más allá. El área al sur y al este de los Karluks estaba habitada por los Yagma. ^[31] El centro de Karluk en los siglos IX y X parece haber estado en Balasagun en el río Chu. A finales del siglo IX, los samánidas marcharon hacia las estepas y capturaronTaraz , una de las sedes del Karluk khagan, y una gran iglesia se transformó en mezquita.

Formación del kanato Kara-Khanid

Tumba del sultán Satuk Bughra Khan, el primer khan musulmán, en Artush , Xinjiang

Durante el siglo IX, la confederación Karluk (incluidas tres tribus principales: Bulaq ( Mouluo謀 落 / Moula謀 剌), Taşlïk ( Tashili踏實 力) y Sebek (Suofu 娑 匐) ^[a] , junto con Chigils , Charuks , Barskhans , Khalajes , Azkishi y Tuhsis ^[34] (los últimos tres son posiblemente restos de Türgesh ^{[35] [36] [37]} ) y los Yaghma, posibles descendientes de los Toquz Oghuz, unió fuerzas y formó el primer khaganato de Karluk-Karakhanid. Los Chigil parecen haber formado el núcleo del ejército Karakhanid. La fecha de su fundación y el nombre de su primer khan son inciertos, pero según una reconstrucción, el primer gobernante Karakhanid fue Bilge Kul Qadir Khan . ^[38] Los gobernantes de los Karakhanids probablemente pertenecían a las tribus Chigil y Yaghma: el Khagan oriental llevaba el título Arslan Qara Khaqan (Arslan "león" era el tótem del Chigil) y el Khagan occidental el título Bughra Qara Khaqan(Bughra "camello macho" era el tótem del Yaghma). Los nombres de los animales eran un elemento regular en los títulos turcos de los Karakhanids: así Aslan (león), Bughra (camello), Toghan (halcón), Böri (lobo) y Toghrul o Toghrïl (un ave de presa). ^[11] Bajo los Khagan había cuatro gobernantes con los títulos Arslan Ilig, Bughra Ilig, Arslan Tegin y Bughra Tegin. ^[38] Los títulos de los miembros de la dinastía cambiaban con su posición, normalmente hacia arriba, en la jerarquía dinástica.

A mediados del siglo X, los Kara-Khanids se convirtieron al Islam y adoptaron nombres y honoríficos musulmanes, pero conservaron títulos de reinado turcos como Khan, Khagan , Ilek (Ilig) y Tegin . ^{[11] [39]} Posteriormente adoptaron los títulos árabes sultan y sultān al-salātīn (sultán de sultanes). Según el historiador otomano conocido como Munajjim-bashi, un príncipe Karakhanid llamado Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan fue el primero de los khans en convertirse. Después de la conversión, obtuvo una fatwa que le permitió, de hecho, matar a su padre presuntamente todavía pagano, después de lo cual conquistó Kashgar (del antiguo Reino de Shule ).^[40] Later, in 960, according to Muslim historians Ibn Miskawaih and Ibn al-Athir, there was a mass conversion of the Turks (reportedly "200,000 tents of the Turks"), and circumstantial evidence suggests these were the Karakhanids.^[40]

Conquest of Transoxiana

The map of Kara-Khanid Khanate as of 1006 AD when it reached its greatest extent

The grandson of Satuk Bughra Khan, Hasan b. Sulayman (or Harun) (title: Bughra Khan) attacked the Samanids in the late 10th century. Between 990–992, Hasan took Isfijab, Ferghana, Ilaq, Samarkand, and the Samanid capital Bukhara.^[41] However, Hasan Bughra Khan died in 992 due to an illness,^[41] and the Samanids returned to Bukhara.

Hasan's cousin Ali b. Musa (title: Kara Khan or Arslan Khan) resumed the campaign against the Samanids, and by 999 Ali's son Nasr had taken Chach, Samarkand, and Bukhara.^[11] The Samanid domains were divided between the Ghaznavids, who gained Khorasan and Afghanistan, and the Karakhanids, who received Transoxiana. The Oxus River thus became the boundary between the two rival empires.

The Karakhanid state was divided into appanages (Ülüş system), as was common of Turkic and Mongol nomads. The Karakhanid appanages were associated with four principal urban centers, Balasagun (then the capital of the Karakhanid state) in Zhetysu, Kashgar in Xinjiang, Uzgen in Fergana, and Samarkand in Transoxiana. The dynasty's original domains of Zhetysu and Kasgar and their khans retained an implicit seniority over those who ruled in Transoxiana and Fergana.^[10] The four sons of Ali (Ahmad, Nasr, Mansur, Muhammad) each held their own independent appanage within the Karakhanid state. Nasr, the conqueror of Transoxiana, held the large central area of Transoxiana (Samarkand and Bukhara), Fergana (Uzgen) and other areas, although after his death his appanage was further divided. Ahmad held Zhetysu and Chach and became the head of the dynasty after the death of Ali. The brothers Ahmad and Nasr conducted different policies towards the Ghaznavids in the south – while Ahmad tried to form an alliance with Mahmud of Ghazna, Nasr attempted to expand unsuccessfully into Ghaznavid territory.^[11]

Ahmad was succeeded by Mansur, and after the death of Mansur, the Hasan Bughra Khan branch of the Karakhanids became dominant. Hasan's sons Muhammad Toghan Khan II, and Yusuf Kadir Khan who held Kashgar, became in turn the head of the Karakhanid dynasty. The two families, i.e., the descendants of Ali Arslan Khan and Hasan Bughra Khan, would eventually split the Karakhanid Khanate in two.

In 1017–1018, the Karakhanids repelled an attack by a large mass of nomadic Turkic tribes in what was described in Muslim sources as a great victory.^[42]

Conquest of western Tarim Basin

The Islamic conquest of the Buddhist cities east of Kashgar began when the Karakhanid Sultan Satuq Bughra Khan converted to Islam in 934 and then captured Kashgar. He and his son directed endeavors to proselytize Islam among the Turks and engage in military conquests.^[43] In the mid-10th century, Satuq's son Musa began to put pressure on Khotan, and a long period of war between Kashgar and the Kingdom of Khotan ensued.^[44] Satok Bughra Khan's nephew or grandson Ali Arslan was said to have been killed by Buddhists during the war;^[45] during the reign of Ahmad b. Ali, the Karakhanids also engaged in wars against non-Muslims to the east and northeast.^[46]

Muslim accounts tell the tale of the four imams from Mada'in city (possibly now in Iraq) who travelled to help Yusuf Qadir Khan, the Qarakhanid leader, in his conquest of Khotan, Yarkend, and Kashgar. The "infidels" were said to have been driven towards Khotan, but the four Imams were killed.^[47] In 1006, Yusuf Qadir Khan of Kashgar conquered the Kingdom of Khotan, ending Khotan's existence as an independent state.^[48]

The conquest of the western Tarim Basin which includes Khotan and Kashgar is significant in the eventual Turkification and Islamification of the Tarim Basin, and modern Uyghurs identify with the Karakhanids even though the name Uyghur was taken from the Manichaean Uyghur Khaganate and the Buddhist state of Qocho.^[49][50]

Division of the Kara-Khanid Khanate

Genealogy of the Karakhanids

Early in the 11th century the unity of the Karakhanid dynasty was fractured by frequent internal warfare that eventually resulted in the formation of two independent Karakhanid states. A son of Hasan Bughra Khan, Ali Tegin, seized control of Bukhara and other towns. He expanded his territory further after the death of Mansur. The son of Nasr, Böritigin, later waged war against the sons of Ali Tegin, and won control of a large part of Transoxiana, making Samarkand the capital. In 1041, another son of Nasr b. Ali, Muhammad 'Ayn ad-Dawlah (reigned 1041–52) took over the administration of the western branch of the family that eventually led to a formal separation of the Khara-Khanid Khanate. Ibrahim Tamghach Khan was considered by Muslim historians as a great ruler, and he brought some stability to the Western Karakhanids by limiting the appanage system that caused much of the internal strife in the Kara-Khanid Khanate.^[11]

The Hasan family remained in control of the Eastern Khanate. The Eastern Khanate had its capital at Balasaghun and later Kashgar. The Fergana-Zhetysu areas became the border between the two states and were frequently contested. When the two states were formed, Fergana fell into realm of the Eastern Khanate, but was later captured by Ibrahim and became part of the Western Khanate.

Seljuk suzerainty

In 1040, the Seljuk Turks defeated the Ghaznavids at the Battle of Dandanaqan and entered Iran. Conflict with the Karakhanids broke out, but the Karakhanids were able to withstand attacks by the Seljuks initially, even briefly taking control of Seljuk towns in Greater Khorasan. The Karakhanids, however, developed serious conflicts with the religious classes (the ulama), and the ulama of Transoxiana then requested the intervention of the Seljuks. In 1089, during the reign of Ibrahim's grandson Ahmad b. Khidr, the Seljuks entered and took control of Samarkand, together with the domains belonging to the Western Khanate. For half a century, the Western Karakhanid Khanate was a vassal of the Seljuks, who largely controlled the appointment of the Khanate's rulers in that time. Ahmad b. Khidr was returned to power by the Seljuks, but in 1095, the ulama accused Ahmad of heresy and managed to secure his execution.^[11]

The Karakhanids of Kashgar also declared their submission following a Seljuk campaign into Talas and Zhetysu, but the Eastern Khanate was a Seljuk vassal for only a short time. At the beginning of the 12th century the Eastern Khanate invaded Transoxiana and briefly occupied the Seljuk town of Termez.^[11]

Qara Khitai Invasion

The restored mausoleum of Aisha Bibi near Taraz.

The Qara Khitai host which invaded Central Asia was composed of remnants from the defunct Liao dynasty which was annihilated by the Jurchens in 1125. The Khitan noble Yelü Dashi recruited warriors from various tribes and formed a horde that moved westward to rebuild the Khitan nation. Yelu occupied Balasagun on the Chu River, then defeated the Western Karakhanids in Khujand in 1137.^[51] In 1141 Qara Khitai became the dominant force in the region after they dealt a devastating blow to the Seljuk Sultan Ahmad Sanjar at the Battle of Qatwan near Samarkand.^[10] Several military commanders of Karakhanid lineages such as the father of Osman of Khwarazm fled from Karakhanid lands in the wake of the Qara Khitai invasion.

Despite losing to the Qara Khitai, the Karakhanid dynasty remained in power as their vassals. The Qara Khitai themselves stayed at Zhetysu near Balasagun, and allowed some of the Karakhanids to continue to rule as their tax collectors in Samarkand and Kashgar. Under the Qara Khitai the Karakhanids functioned as administrators for sedentary Muslim populations. While the Qara Khitai were Buddhists ruling over a largely Muslim population, they were considered fair-minded rulers whose reign was marked by religious tolerance.^[10] Islamic religious life continued uninterrupted and Islamic authority persevered under the Qara Khitai. Kashgar became a Nestorian metropolitan see and Christian gravestones in the Chu River Valley appeared beginning in this period.^[51] However, Kuchlug, a Naiman who usurped the throne of the Qara Khitai Dynasty, instituted anti-Islamic policies on the local populations under his rule.^[52]

Downfall

The decline of the Seljuks following their defeat by the Qara Khitans allowed the Khwarazmian dynasty, then a vassal of the Qara Khitai, to expand into former Seljuk territory. In 1207, the citizens of Bukhara revolted against the sadrs (leaders of the religious classes), which the Khwarezm-Shah 'Ala' ad-Din Muhammad used as a pretext to conquer Bukhara. Muhammad then formed an alliance with the Western Karakhanid ruler Uthman (who later married Muhammad's daughter) against the Qara Khitai. In 1210, the Khwarezm-Shah took Samarkand after the Qara Khitai retreated to deal with the rebellion from the Naiman Kuchlug, who had seized the Qara Khitans' treasury at Uzgen.^[11] The Khwarezm-Shah then defeated the Qara Khitai near Talas. Muhammad and Kuchlug had, apparently, agreed to divide up the Qara Khitan's empire.^[53] In 1212, the population of Samarkand staged a revolt against the Khwarezmians, a revolt which Uthman supported, and massacred them. The Khwarezm-Shah returned, recaptured Samarkand and executed Uthman. He demanded the submission of all leading Karakhanids, and finally extinguished the Western Karakhanid state.

In 1204, a rebellion of the Eastern Kara-Khanid in Kashgar was suppressed by the Kara-Khitai who took the prince Yusuf hostage to Balasagun.^[54] The prince was later released but he was killed in Kashgar by rebels in 1211, effectively ending the Eastern Kara-Khanid.^[54] In 1214, the rebels in Kashgar surrendered to Kuchlug, who had usurped the Kara-Khitai throne.^[54] In 1218, Kuchlug was killed by the Mongol army. Some of the Kara-Khitai's eastern vassals including Eastern Kara-Khanids then joined the Mongol forces to conquer the Khwarezmian Empire.^[55]

Culture

Burana tower, Balasagun, today Kyrgyzstan.

The takeover by the Karakhanids did not change the essentially Iranian character of Central Asia, though it set into motion a demographic and ethnolinguistic shift. During the Karakhanid era, the local population began using Turkic in speech – initially the shift was linguistic with the local people adopting the Turkic language.^[56] While Central Asia became Turkicized over the centuries, culturally the Turks came close to being Persianized or, in certain respects, Arabicized.^[10] Nevertheless, the official or court language used in Kashgar and other Karakhanid centers, referred to as "Khaqani" (royal), remained Turkic. The language was partly based on dialects spoken by the Turkic tribes that made up the Karakhanids and possessed qualities of linear descent from Kök and Karluk Turkic. The Turkic script was also used for all documents and correspondence of the khaqans, according to Dīwānu l-Luġat al-Turk.^[57]

11th–12th-century Karakhanid mausolea in Uzgen, Kyrgyzstan.

The Dīwānu l-Luġat al-Turk (Dictionary of Languages of the Turks) was written by a prominent Karakhanid historian, Mahmud al-Kashgari, who may have lived for some time in Kashgar at the Karakhanid court. He wrote this first comprehensive dictionary of Turkic languages in Arabic for the Caliphs of Baghdad in 1072–76. Another famous Karakhanid writer was Yusuf Balasaghuni, who wrote Kutadgu Bilig (The Wisdom of Felicity), the only known literary work written in Turkic from the Karakhanid period.^[57] Kutadgu Bilig is a form of advice literature known as mirrors for princes.^[58] The Turkic identity is evident in both of these pieces of work, but they also showed the influences of Persian and Islamic culture.^[59] However, the court culture of the Karakhanids remained almost entirely Persian.^[59] The two last western khaqans also wrote poetry in Persian.^[5]

The Kalyan minaret in Bukhara

Islam and its civilization flourished under the Karakhanids. The earliest example of madrasas in Central Asia was founded in Samarkand by Ibrahim Tamghach Khan. Ibrahim also founded a hospital to care for the sick as well as providing shelter for the poor.^[11] His son Nasr Shams al-Mulk built ribats for the caravanserais on the route between Bukhara and Samarkand, as well as a palace near Bukhara. Some of the buildings constructed by the Karakhanids still survive today, including the Kalyan minaret built by Mohammad Aslan Khan beside the main mosque in Bukhara, and three mausolea in Uzgend. The early Karakhanid rulers, as nomads, lived not in the city but in an army encampment outside the capital, and while by the time of Ibrahim the Karakhanids still maintained a nomadic tradition, their extensive religious and civil constructions showed that they had assimilated the culture and traditions of the settled population of Transoxiana.^[11]

Genetics

See also: Göktürks § Genetics, Karluks § Genetics, Kimek tribe § Genetics, Kipchaks § Genetics, and Golden Horde § Genetics

A genetic study published in Nature in May 2018 examined the remains of three Khara-Khanid individuals.^[60] They were found to be carrying the maternal haplogroups G2a2, A and J1c.^[61] The Kara-Khanid were found to have more East Asian ancestry than the preceding Goktürks.^[62]

Legacy

Kara-Khanid is arguably the most enduring cultural heritage among coexisting cultures in Central Asia from the 9th to the 13th centuries. The Karluk-Uyghur dialect spoken by the nomadic tribes and Turkified sedentary populations under Kara-Khanid rule formed two major branches of the Turkic language family, the Chagatay and the Kypchak. The Kara-Khanid cultural model that combined nomadic Turkic culture with Islamic, sedentary institutions spread east into former Kara-Khoja and Tangut territories and west and south into the subcontinent, Khorasan (Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, and Northern Iran), Golden Horde territories (Tataristan), and Turkey. The Chagatay, Timurid, and Uzbek states and societies inherited most of the cultures of the Kara-Khanids and the Khwarezmians without much interruption.^{[citation needed]}

The Kara-Khanids translated the Quran into Middle Turkic. There are four surviving copies of the Quran translations found in various collections and a Middle Turkic excerpt of Al-Fatiha, which supposedly belong to the Kara-Khanid period.^[63]

Kara-Khanid dynasty

History of the Turkic peoples pre–14th century
Tiele people
Göktürks
First Turkic Khaganate 552–581 Western Turkic Khaganate 581–657 (Tokhara Yabghus, Turk Shahis) Eastern Turkic Khaganate 581–650 Second Turkic Khaganate 682–744
Khazar Khaganate 618–1048
Xueyantuo 628–646
Kangar union 659–750
Turk Shahi 665-850
Türgesh Khaganate 699–766
Kimek confederation 743–1035
Uyghur Khaganate 744–840
Oghuz Yabgu State 750–1055
Karluk Yabgu State 756–940
Kara-Khanid Khanate 840–1212
Western Kara-Khanid Eastern Kara-Khanid
Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom 848–1036
Qocho 856–1335
Pecheneg Khanates 860–1091
Ghaznavid Empire 963–1186
Seljuk Empire 1037–1194
Sultanate of Rum
Cuman–Kipchak confederation 1067–1239
Khwarazmian Empire 1077–1231
Kerait Khanate 11th century–13th century
Delhi Sultanate 1206–1526
Mamluk dynasty Khalji dynasty Tughlaq dynasty
Qarlughid Kingdom 1224–1266
Golden Horde 1240s–1502
Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo) 1250–1517
Bahri dynasty

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Ancient period Tocharians Yuezhi Xiongnu Western Regions (Han Protectorate; Chief Officials) Kingdom of Khotan Former Liang Former Qin Later Liang Western Liang Gaochang Rouran First Turkic Khaganate Western Turkic Khaganate Eastern Turkic Khaganate Second Turkic Khaganate
Medieval and early modern period Tang Protectorates (West; Beiting) Tibetan Empire Uyghur Khaganate Kara-Khanid Khanate Kingdom of Qocho Western Liao Mongol Empire (Yuan; Chagatai Khanate) Moghulistan Ming ruled Kara Del Yarkent Khanate Dzungar Khanate Kumul Khanate Yettishar Qing rule
Modern period Xinjiang Province, Republic of China (Xinjiang clique 1st East Turkestan Republic 2nd East Turkestan Republic) Xinjiang Province, People's Republic of China Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (Production and Construction Corps Xinjiang re-education camps Uyghur genocide)
v t e

• Bilge Kul Qadir Khan (840–893)
• Bazir Arslan Khan (893–920)
• Oghulcak Khan (893–940)
• Satuk Bughra Khan 920–955, in 932 adopted Islam,^[64] in 940 took power over Karluks
• Musa Bughra Khan 955–958
• Suleyman Arslan Khan 958–970
• Ali Arslan Khan 970–998, Great Qaghan
• Ahmad Arslan Qara Khan 998–1017, son of Ali Arslan
• Mansur Arslan Khan 1017–1024, son of Ali Arslan
• Muhammad Toghan Khan 1024–1026, son of Hasan b. Sulayman
• Yusuf Qadir Khan 1026–1032, son of Hasan b. Sulayman
• Ali Tigin Bughra Khan (1020–1034), Great Qaghan in Samarkand, son of Hasan b. Sulayman
• Ebu Shuca Sulayman 1034–1042

Western Karakhanids

• Tamghach Khan Ibrahim (also known as Böritigin) c. 1040–1068
• Nasr Shams al-Mulk 1068–1080: married Aisha, daughter of Alp Arslan.^[65]
• Khidr 1080–1081
• Ahmad 1081–1089
• Ya'qub Qadir Khan 1089–1095
• Mas'ud 1095–1097
• Sulayman Qadir Tamghach 1097
• Mahmud Arslan Khan 1097–1099
• Jibrail Arslan Khan 1099–1102
• Muhammad Arslan Khan 1102–1129
• Nasr 1129
• Ahmad Qadir Khan 1129–1130
• Hasan Jalal ad-Dunya 1130–1132
• Ibrahim Rukn ad-Dunya 1132
• Mahmud 1132–1141
• Ibrahim Tabghach Khan 1141–1156
• Ali Chaghri Khan 1156–1161
• Mas'ud Tabghach Khan 1161–1171
• Muhammad Tabghach Khan 1171–1178
• Ibrahim Arslan Khan 1178–1204
• Uthman Ulugh Sultan 1204–1212

Eastern Karakhanids

• Ebu Shuca Sulayman 1042–1056
• Muhammad bin Yusuph 1056–1057
• İbrahim bin Muhammad Khan 1057–1059
• Mahmud 1059–1075
• Umar (Kara-Khanid) 1075
• Ebu Ali el-Hasan 1075–1102
• Ahmad Khan 1102–1128
• İbrahim bin Ahmad 1128–1158
• Muhammad bin İbrahim 1158–?
• Yusuph bin Muhammad ?–1205
• Ebul Feth Muhammad 1205–1211

See also

• Khanate
• Göktürks
• Uyghur Khaganate
• Uyghur people
• Karluks
• Chigils
• Yaghmas
• List of Sunni Muslim dynasties
• History of the central steppe

Notes

1. also known as Chisi in Chinese sources. Golden (1992) hesitantly identifies Chisi with Chuyue, whom he also links to Chigils;^[32] Atwood (2010) identified Chisi 熾俟 with Zhusi 朱斯, who were also mentioned in Xiu Tangshu. Atwood does not link Chisi 熾俟 ~ Zhusi 朱斯 to Chuyue 處月, but instead to Zhuxie 朱邪, the original tribal surname of the Shatuo ruling house^[33]

References

1. V.V. Barthold (1962). Four Studies on the History of Central Asia. E.J. Brill. p. 99.
2. Grousset 1991, p. 165. sfn error: no target: CITEREFGrousset1991 (help)
3. Janhunen 2006, p. 114. sfn error: no target: CITEREFJanhunen2006 (help)
4. Kemal Silay (1996). An Anthology of Turkish Literature. p. 27.
5. Michal Biran (March 27, 2012). "ILAK-KHANIDS". Encyclopedia Iranica. Archived from the original on September 9, 2015. Retrieved May 12, 2014. The two last western ḵāqāns, Ebrāhim b. Ḥo-sayn (1178-1203) and ʿOṯmān (1202-12), wrote poetry in Persian
6. "Qara-khanids", Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East, Vol. 1, Ed. Jamie Stokes, (Infobase Publishing, 2009), p. 578.
7. Asimov 1998, p. 120.
8. "Encyclopædia Britannica". Archived from the original on 2008-12-02. Retrieved 2006-12-08.
9. Grousset 2004.
10. Soucek 2000.
11. Asimov 1998, p. 119-144.
12. Golden 1990, p. 354.
13. Osman Aziz Basan (2010). The Great Seljuqs: A History. p. 177.
14. Biran, Michal (2016). "Karakhanid Khanate" (PDF). In John M. MacKenzie (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Empire. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. ISBN 978-1118440643. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-08-26. Retrieved 2017-05-04.
15. Biran, Michal (2001). "Qarakhanid Studies: A View from the Qara Khitai Edge". Cahiers d'Asie centrale. 9: 77–89. Archived from the original on 2017-08-26. Retrieved 2017-05-04.
16. Al-Masudi Meadows of Gold and Mines of Gems vol. 1 p. 311-312. translated by Aloys Spreger
17. P. B. Golden, "Irano-Turcica: The Khazar sacral kingship revisited," in Acta Orientalia Hungarica 60:2 (2007) p. 165, 172, n. 33
18. Boris Zhivkov, (2010), Khazaria in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries, p. 46.
19. Maħmūd al-Kašğari. "Dīwān Luğāt al-Turk". Edited & translated by Robert Dankoff in collaboration with James Kelly. In Sources of Oriental Languages and Literature. (1982) Part I, p. 92 and Part II. p. 225, 337
20. Carter V. Findley, (2004), The Turks in World History p. 75
21. Golden, P.B. (1992) An Introduction to the History of the Turkic peoples. Series: Turcologica 9. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. p. 214
22. Ḥudūd al'Ālam "§13. Discourse on the country of Yaghmā and its towns". Translated and Explained by V. Minorsky. p. 95-96
23. Tang Huiyao, vol. 98
24. Jiu Tangshu vol. 195
25. Xin Tangshu vol. 217a
26. Moriyasu, Takao (2015). "New Developments in the History of East Uighur Manichaeism". Open Theology. 1 (1): 327-328. doi:10.1515/opth-2015-0016. ISSN 2300-6579.
27. 1940-, Kochnev, Boris Dmitrievich (2006). Numizmaticheskai︠a︡ istorii︠a︡ Karakhanidskogo kaganata, 991-1209 gg. Nastich, V. N. Moskva: Sofii︠a︡.
28. Beckwith 2009, p. 142.
29. Golden 1990, p. 349.
30. Golden 1990, p. 350-351.
31. Golden 1990, p. 348.
32. Golden, P.B. (1992) An Introduction to the History of the Turkic peoples. Series: Turcologica 9. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz. p. 196-201
33. Atwood, Christopher P. (2010), "The Notion of Tribe in Medieval China: Ouyang Xiu and the Shatuo Dynastic Myth". Department of East Asian Languages and Civilizations. 16. p 600-601 of 593-621
34. Karluk Yabghu State (756-940) in Qazagstan Tarihy
35. Gumilyov, L. Searches for an Imaginary Kingdom: The trefoil of the Bird's Eye View' Ch. 5: The Shattered Silence (961–1100)
36. Pylypchuk, Ya. "Turks and Muslims: From Confrontation to Conversion to Islam (End of VII century – Beginning of XI Century)" in UDK 94 (4): 95 (4). In Ukrainian
37. Minorsky, V. "Commentary" on "§17. The Tukhs" in Ḥudūd al'Ālam. Translated and Explained by V. Minorsky. pp. 300–304
38. Golden 1990, p. 355-356.
39. "Asia Research Institute Working Paper Series No.44 A History of Uighur Religious Conversions (5th-16th Centuries) by Li Tang". Archived from the original on 2008-01-19. Retrieved 2008-01-19.
40. Golden 1990, p. 357.
41. The Samanids, Richard Nelson Frye, The Cambridge History of Iran, Vol. 4, ed. R. N. Frye, (Cambridge University Press, 1999), 156-157.
42. Golden 1990, p. 363.
43. Hansen 2012, p. 226.
44. Millward 2009, p. 55-56.
45. Trudy Ring; Robert M. Salkin; Sharon La Boda (1994). International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania. Taylor & Francis. pp. 457–. ISBN 978-1-884964-04-6. Archived from the original on 2016-05-10. Retrieved 2015-10-12.
46. Moriyasu 2004, p. 207.
47. Thum 2012, p. 633.
48. Aurel Stein, Ancient Khotan Archived 2011-09-12 at the Wayback Machine, Clarendon Press, pg 181.
49. Millward 2009, p. 52-56.
50. Starr 2015, p. 42.
51. Asimov 1998.
52. Biran 2005, p. 194-196.
53. Golden 1990, p. 370.
54. Biran 2005, p. 81.
55. Biran 2005, p. 87.
56. Golden 2011.
57. Larry Clark (2010), "The Turkic script and Kutadgu Bilig", Turkology in Mainz, Otto Harrasowitz GmbH & Co, p. 96, ISBN 978-3-447-06113-1
58. Scott Cameron Levi; Ron Sela (2010). "Chapter 13 - Yusuf Hass Hajib: Advice to the Qarakhanid Rulers". Islamic Central Asia: An Anthology of Historical Sources. Indiana University Press. pp. 76–81. ISBN 978-0-253-35385-6.
59. Tetley 2009, p. 27.
60. Damgaard et al. 2018, Supplementary Table 2, Rows 117-119.
61. Damgaard et al. 2018, Supplementary Table 8, Rows 60-62.
62. Damgaard et al. 2018, p. 4.
63. "Kur'an Tercümeleri" (in Turkish). International Turkic Academy.
64. Grousset 2004, p. 145.
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