La cría de animales es la rama de la agricultura que se ocupa de los animales que se crían para obtener carne , fibra , leche , huevos u otros productos. Incluye el cuidado del día a día, la cría selectiva y la cría de ganado . La cría tiene una larga historia, comenzando con la revolución neolítica cuando los animales fueron domesticados por primera vez , alrededor del 13.000 a. C. en adelante, antes de la agricultura de los primeros cultivos . En la época de las primeras civilizaciones como el antiguo Egipto , el ganado , las ovejas ,se crían cabras y cerdos en granjas.
Se produjeron cambios importantes en el intercambio colombino cuando el ganado del Viejo Mundo fue llevado al Nuevo Mundo, y luego en la Revolución Agrícola Británica del siglo XVIII, cuando las razas de ganado como el ganado Dishley Longhorn y el ovino Lincoln Longwool fueron rápidamente mejoradas por agricultores como Robert Bakewell para producir más carne, leche y lana . Una amplia gama de otras especies como el caballo , el búfalo de agua , la llama , el conejo y el cuy se utilizan como ganado en algunas partes del mundo. La cría de insectos , así como la acuicultura de peces , moluscos y crustáceos , está muy extendida. La ganadería moderna se basa en sistemas de producción adaptados al tipo de tierra disponible. La agricultura de subsistencia está siendo reemplazada por la ganadería intensiva en las partes más desarrolladas del mundo, donde, por ejemplo, el ganado de carne se mantiene en corrales de engorde de alta densidad y miles de pollos pueden criarse en gallineros o baterías de pollos de engorde . En suelos más pobres, como en las tierras altas, los animales a menudo se mantienen más extensamente y se les puede permitir deambular ampliamente en busca de alimento.
La mayoría del ganado son herbívoros , excepto los cerdos y pollos que son omnívoros . Los rumiantes, como el ganado vacuno y ovino, están adaptados para alimentarse de pasto; pueden forrajear al aire libre, o pueden ser alimentados total o parcialmente con raciones más ricas en energía y proteínas, como cereales granulados. Los cerdos y las aves de corral no pueden digerir la celulosa del forraje y necesitan otros alimentos ricos en proteínas.
Etimología
El verbo marido , que significa "administrar con cuidado", se deriva de un significado más antiguo de marido , que en el siglo XIV se refería a la propiedad y el cuidado de una casa o granja, pero hoy significa "control o uso juicioso de los recursos". y en agricultura, el cultivo de plantas o animales. [1] Se considera que los agricultores y ganaderos que crían ganado practican la cría de animales .
Historia
Nacimiento de la cría
La domesticación del ganado fue impulsada por la necesidad de tener alimentos a mano cuando la caza era improductiva. Las características deseables de un animal doméstico son que debe ser útil para el domesticador, debe poder prosperar en su compañía, debe reproducirse libremente y ser fácil de cuidar. [2]
La domesticación no fue un evento único, sino un proceso que se repitió en varios períodos en diferentes lugares. Las ovejas y las cabras eran los animales que acompañaban a los nómadas en Oriente Medio, mientras que el ganado vacuno y porcino se asociaba con comunidades más asentadas. [3]
El primer animal salvaje en ser domesticado fue el perro . Los perros medio salvajes, tal vez comenzando con individuos jóvenes, pueden haber sido tolerados como carroñeros y asesinos de alimañas, y al ser naturalmente cazadores de manadas , estaban predispuestos a formar parte de la manada humana y unirse a la caza. Los animales de presa, ovejas, cabras, cerdos y ganado, fueron domesticados progresivamente al principio de la historia de la agricultura. [3]
Los cerdos fueron domesticados en Mesopotamia alrededor del 13.000 a. C. [4] y le siguieron las ovejas , en algún momento entre el 11.000 y el 9.000 a. C. [5] El ganado fue domesticado de los uros salvajes en las áreas de la Turquía moderna y Pakistán alrededor del 8.500 a. C. [6]
Una vaca era una gran ventaja para un aldeano, ya que producía más leche de la que necesitaba su ternero, y su fuerza podía utilizarse como animal de trabajo , tirando de un arado para aumentar la producción de cultivos y tirando un trineo, y más tarde un carro. , para llevar los productos del campo a casa. Los animales de tiro se utilizaron por primera vez alrededor del 4000 a. C. en el Medio Oriente, aumentando enormemente la producción agrícola. [3] En el sur de Asia, el elefante fue domesticado hacia el 6.000 a. C. [7]
Se han encontrado huesos de pollo fosilizados que datan de 5040 a. C. en el noreste de China, lejos de donde vivían sus ancestros salvajes en las selvas de Asia tropical, pero los arqueólogos creen que el propósito original de la domesticación era el deporte de las peleas de gallos. [8]
Mientras tanto, en América del Sur, la llama y la alpaca habían sido domesticadas, probablemente antes del 3.000 a. C., como bestias de carga y para su lana. Ninguno de los dos fue lo suficientemente fuerte como para tirar de un arado que limitaba el desarrollo de la agricultura en el Nuevo Mundo. [3]
Los caballos se encuentran naturalmente en las estepas de Asia Central, y su domesticación, alrededor del 3.000 a. C. en la región del Mar Negro y el Mar Caspio , fue originalmente como fuente de carne; utilizar como animales de carga y para montar seguidos. Casi al mismo tiempo, el asno salvaje estaba siendo domesticado en Egipto. Los camellos fueron domesticados poco después de esto, [9] con el camello bactriano en Mongolia y el camello árabe convirtiéndose en bestias de carga. Hacia el año 1000 a. C., las caravanas de camellos árabes unían la India con Mesopotamia y el Mediterráneo. [3]
Civilizaciones antiguas
En el antiguo Egipto , el ganado era el ganado más importante y también se criaban ovejas, cabras y cerdos; Las aves de corral, incluidos patos, gansos y palomas, fueron capturadas en redes y criadas en granjas, donde fueron alimentadas a la fuerza con masa para engordarlas. [10]
El Nilo proporcionó una fuente abundante de pescado. Las abejas melíferas fueron domesticadas al menos desde el Reino Antiguo, proporcionando tanto miel como cera. [11]
En la antigua Roma , todo el ganado conocido en el antiguo Egipto estaba disponible. Además, los conejos fueron domesticados como alimento en el siglo I a.C. Para ayudar a sacarlos de sus madrigueras, el turón fue domesticado como el hurón , su uso descrito por Plinio el Viejo . [12]
Cría medieval
En el norte de Europa, la agricultura, incluida la ganadería, entró en decadencia cuando el imperio romano se derrumbó. Algunos aspectos como el pastoreo de animales continuaron durante todo el período. En el siglo XI, la economía se recuperó y el campo volvió a ser productivo. [13]
El Domesday Book registró cada parcela de tierra y cada animal en Inglaterra: "no había ni un solo cuero, ni una yarda de tierra, no, además ... ni siquiera quedó un buey, ni una vaca, ni un cerdo, que no fue escrito en [la] orden del rey ". [14] Por ejemplo, la mansión real de Earley en Berkshire , una de las miles de aldeas registradas en el libro, tenía en 1086 "2 pesquerías por valor [pagando impuestos de] 7 chelines y 6 peniques [cada año] y 20 acres de pradera [por ganado]. Bosque para [alimentar] 70 cerdos ". [15]
Intercambio colombino
La exploración y colonización de América del Norte y del Sur resultó en la introducción en Europa de cultivos como el maíz, la papa, la batata y la mandioca, mientras que el principal ganado del Viejo Mundo - ganado, caballos, ovejas y cabras - se introdujo en el Nuevo Mundo para la primera vez junto con trigo, cebada, arroz y nabos. [18]
Revolución agrícola
La cría selectiva para los rasgos deseados fue establecida como una práctica científica por Robert Bakewell durante la Revolución Agrícola Británica en el siglo XVIII. Uno de sus programas de cría más importantes fue el de ovejas. Usando ganado nativo, pudo seleccionar rápidamente ovejas grandes pero de huesos finos, con lana larga y brillante. El Lincoln Longwool fue mejorado por Bakewell y, a su vez, el Lincoln se utilizó para desarrollar la raza posterior, llamada New (o Dishley) Leicester. No tenía cuernos y tenía un cuerpo cuadrado y carnoso con líneas superiores rectas. [19] Estas ovejas se exportaron ampliamente y han contribuido a numerosas razas modernas. Bajo su influencia, los granjeros ingleses comenzaron a criar ganado para su uso principalmente como carne. Las vaquillas de cuernos largos se cruzaron con el toro de Westmoreland para crear el Dishley Longhorn . [20]
Los pastos seminaturales y no fertilizados formados por métodos agrícolas tradicionales en Europa se gestionaron mediante pastoreo y siega. Como el impacto ecológico de esta estrategia de gestión de la tierra es similar al impacto de perturbaciones naturales como un incendio forestal , este sistema agrícola comparte muchas características beneficiosas con un hábitat natural, incluida la promoción de la biodiversidad . Esta estrategia está disminuyendo hoy en Europa debido a la intensificación de la agricultura. Los métodos mecanizados y químicos utilizados están provocando el declive de la biodiversidad. [21]
Agricultura
Sistemas
Tradicionalmente, la cría de animales era parte de la forma de vida de los agricultores de subsistencia , produciendo no solo los alimentos que necesita la familia, sino también el combustible, fertilizantes, ropa, transporte y tracción. Matar al animal para comer era una consideración secundaria y, siempre que era posible, sus productos, como lana, huevos, leche y sangre (por los masai ) se recolectaban mientras el animal aún estaba vivo. [22] En el sistema tradicional de trashumancia , las personas y el ganado se movían estacionalmente entre pastos fijos de verano e invierno; en las regiones montañosas , los pastos de verano estaban en las montañas, los pastos de invierno en los valles. [23]
Los animales se pueden mantener de forma extensiva o intensiva. Los sistemas extensivos involucran animales que deambulan a voluntad, o bajo la supervisión de un pastor, a menudo para protegerlos de los depredadores . La ganadería en el oeste de los Estados Unidos implica grandes rebaños de ganado que pastan ampliamente en tierras públicas y privadas. [24] Estaciones de ganado similares se encuentran en América del Sur, Australia y otros lugares con grandes áreas de tierra y escasas precipitaciones. Se han utilizado sistemas de cría de ganado ovino , venado , avestruz , emú , llama y alpaca . [25]
En las tierras altas del Reino Unido, las ovejas se apagan en los páramos en primavera y pastan en las abundantes hierbas de montaña sin cuidado, y se llevan a altitudes más bajas a finales de año, con alimentación complementaria en invierno. [26] En las zonas rurales, los cerdos y las aves de corral pueden obtener gran parte de su nutrición de la basura, y en las comunidades africanas, las gallinas pueden vivir durante meses sin ser alimentadas y aún así producir uno o dos huevos por semana. [22]
En el otro extremo, en las partes más desarrolladas del mundo, los animales a menudo se manejan de forma intensiva ; las vacas lecheras pueden mantenerse en condiciones de pastoreo cero con todo el forraje que se les lleve; el ganado de carne puede mantenerse en corrales de engorde de alta densidad ; [27] los cerdos pueden alojarse en edificios con clima controlado y nunca salir al aire libre; [28] Las aves de corral pueden criarse en establos y mantenerse en jaulas como aves ponedoras en condiciones de iluminación controlada. Entre estos dos extremos se encuentran granjas semi-intensivas, a menudo de gestión familiar, donde el ganado pasta al aire libre durante gran parte del año, se ensila o heno para cubrir las épocas del año en que la hierba deja de crecer, y fertilizantes, piensos y otros insumos. se traen a la finca desde el exterior. [29]
Alimentación
Los animales utilizados como ganado son predominantemente herbívoros , siendo las principales excepciones el cerdo y el pollo, que son omnívoros. Los herbívoros se pueden dividir en "selectores de concentrados" que se alimentan selectivamente de semillas, frutos y follaje joven altamente nutritivo, "herbívoros" que se alimentan principalmente de pasto, y "comederos intermedios" que eligen su dieta de toda la gama de material vegetal disponible. El ganado vacuno, ovino, caprino, ciervo y antílope son rumiantes ; digieren los alimentos en dos pasos, masticando y tragando de forma normal, y luego regurgitando el bolo alimenticio semidigerido para volver a masticarlo y así extraer el máximo valor alimenticio posible. [30] Las necesidades dietéticas de estos animales se satisfacen principalmente comiendo pasto. Los pastos crecen desde la base de la lámina de la hoja, lo que le permite prosperar incluso cuando está muy pastoreada o cortada. [31]
En muchos climas, el crecimiento de la hierba es estacional, por ejemplo, en el verano templado o en la temporada de lluvias tropicales , por lo que algunas áreas del cultivo se reservan para ser cortadas y conservadas, ya sea como heno (hierba seca) o como ensilaje (hierba fermentada). [32] También se cultivan otros cultivos forrajeros y muchos de ellos, así como los residuos de cultivos, pueden ensilarse para llenar el vacío en las necesidades nutricionales del ganado en la temporada de escasez. [33]
Los animales criados extensivamente pueden subsistir completamente con forraje, pero el ganado criado de manera más intensiva requerirá además alimentos ricos en energía y proteínas. La energía se deriva principalmente de cereales y subproductos de cereales, grasas y aceites y alimentos ricos en azúcar, mientras que las proteínas pueden provenir de harina de pescado o carne, productos lácteos, legumbres y otros alimentos vegetales, a menudo subproductos de la extracción de aceite vegetal. [34] Los cerdos y las aves de corral no son rumiantes y no pueden digerir la celulosa de la hierba y otros forrajes, por lo que se alimentan exclusivamente de cereales y otros alimentos de alto contenido energético. Los ingredientes para las raciones de los animales se pueden cultivar en la granja o se pueden comprar, en forma de alimentos compuestos granulados o en cubos, especialmente formulados para las diferentes clases de ganado, sus etapas de crecimiento y sus necesidades nutricionales específicas. Se agregan vitaminas y minerales para equilibrar la dieta. [35] Los peces de piscifactoría generalmente se alimentan con alimentos granulados. [35]
Cría
La cría de animales de granja rara vez se produce de forma espontánea, pero la gestionan los agricultores con miras a fomentar los rasgos que se consideran deseables. Estos incluyen resistencia, fertilidad, docilidad, habilidades maternas, tasas de crecimiento rápidas, bajo consumo de alimento por unidad de crecimiento, mejores proporciones corporales, mayores rendimientos y mejores calidades de fibra. Se seleccionan los rasgos indeseables como los defectos de salud y la agresividad. [36] [37]
La cría selectiva ha sido responsable de grandes aumentos en la productividad. Por ejemplo, en 2007, un pollo de engorde típico a las ocho semanas de edad pesaba 4.8 veces más que un ave de edad similar en 1957, [36] mientras que en los treinta años hasta 2007, la producción de leche promedio de una vaca lechera en los Estados Unidos Los estados casi se duplicaron. [36]
Salud animal
Good husbandry, proper feeding, and hygiene are the main contributors to animal health on the farm, bringing economic benefits through maximised production. When, despite these precautions, animals still become sick, they are treated with veterinary medicines, by the farmer and the veterinarian. In the European Union, when farmers treat their own animals, they are required to follow the guidelines for treatment and to record the treatments given.[38] Animals are susceptible to a number of diseases and conditions that may affect their health. Some, like classical swine fever[39] and scrapie[40] are specific to one type of stock, while others, like foot-and-mouth disease affect all cloven-hoofed animals.[41] Animals living under intensive conditions are prone to internal and external parasites; increasing numbers of sea lice are affecting farmed salmon in Scotland.[42] Reducing the parasite burdens of livestock results in increased productivity and profitability.[43]
Where the condition is serious, governments impose regulations on import and export, on the movement of stock, quarantine restrictions and the reporting of suspected cases. Vaccines are available against certain diseases, and antibiotics are widely used where appropriate. At one time, antibiotics were routinely added to certain compound foodstuffs to promote growth, but this practice is now frowned on in many countries because of the risk that it may lead to antimicrobial resistance in livestock and in humans.[44]
Governments are concerned with zoonoses, diseases that humans may acquire from animals. Wild animal populations may harbour diseases that can affect domestic animals which may acquire them as a result of insufficient biosecurity. An outbreak of Nipah virus in Malaysia in 1999 was traced back to pigs becoming ill after contact with fruit-eating flying foxes, their faeces and urine. The pigs in turn passed the infection to humans.[45] Avian flu H5N1 is present in wild bird populations and can be carried large distances by migrating birds. This virus is easily transmissible to domestic poultry, and to humans living in close proximity with them. Other infectious diseases affecting wild animals, farm animals and humans include rabies, leptospirosis, brucellosis, tuberculosis and trichinosis.[46]
Range of species
There is no single universally agreed definition of which species are livestock. Widely agreed types of livestock include cattle for beef and dairy, sheep, goats, pigs, and poultry. Various other species are sometimes considered livestock, such as horses,[47] while poultry birds are sometimes excluded. In some parts of the world, livestock includes species such as buffalo, and the South American camelids, the alpaca and llama.[48][49][50] Some authorities use much broader definitions to include fish in aquaculture, micro-livestock such as rabbits and rodents like guinea pigs, as well as insects from honey bees to crickets raised for human consumption.[51]
Products
Animals are raised for a wide variety of products, principally meat, wool, milk, and eggs, but also including tallow, isinglass and rennet.[52][53] Animals are also kept for more specialised purposes, such as to produce vaccines[54] and antiserum (containing antibodies) for medical use.[55] Where fodder or other crops are grown alongside animals, manure can serve as a fertiliser, returning minerals and organic matter to the soil in a semi-closed organic system.[56]
Sucursales
Dairy
Although all mammals produce milk to nourish their young, the cow is predominantly used throughout the world to produce milk and milk products for human consumption. Other animals used to a lesser extent for this purpose include sheep, goats, camels, buffaloes, yaks, reindeer, horses and donkeys.[57]
All these animals have been domesticated over the centuries, being bred for such desirable characteristics as fecundity, productivity, docility and the ability to thrive under the prevailing conditions. Whereas in the past, cattle had multiple functions, modern dairy cow breeding has resulted in specialised Holstein Friesian-type animals that produce large quantities of milk economically. Artificial insemination is widely available to allow farmers to select for the particular traits that suit their circumstances.[58]
Whereas in the past, cows were kept in small herds on family farms, grazing pastures and being fed hay in winter, nowadays there is a trend towards larger herds, more intensive systems, the feeding of silage and "zero grazing", a system where grass is cut and brought to the cow, which is housed year-round.[59]
In many communities, milk production is only part of the purpose of keeping an animal which may also be used as a beast of burden or to draw a plough, or for the production of fibre, meat and leather, with the dung being used for fuel or for the improvement of soil fertility. Sheep and goats may be favoured for dairy production in climates and conditions that do not suit dairy cows.[57]
Meat
Meat, mainly from farmed animals, is a major source of dietary protein around the world, averaging about 8% of man's energy intake. The actual types eaten depend on local preferences, availability, cost and other factors, with cattle, sheep, pigs and goats being the main species involved. Cattle generally produce a single offspring annually which takes more than a year to mature; sheep and goats often have twins and these are ready for slaughter in less than a year; pigs are more prolific, producing more than one litter of up to about 11[60] piglets each year.[61] Horses, donkeys, deer, buffalo, llamas, alpacas, guanacos and vicunas are farmed for meat in various regions. Some desirable traits of animals raised for meat include fecundity, hardiness, fast growth rate, ease of management and high food conversion efficiency. About half of the world's meat is produced from animals grazing on open ranges or on enclosed pastures, the other half being produced intensively in various factory-farming systems; these are mostly cows, pigs or poultry, and often reared indoors, typically at high densities.[62]
Poultry
Poultry, kept for their eggs and for their meat, include chickens, turkeys, geese and ducks. The great majority of laying birds used for egg production are chickens. Methods for keeping layers range from free-range systems, where the birds can roam as they will but are housed at night for their own protection, through semi-intensive systems where they are housed in barns and have perches, litter and some freedom of movement, to intensive systems where they are kept in cages. The battery cages are arranged in long rows in multiple tiers, with external feeders, drinkers, and egg collection facilities. This is the most labour saving and economical method of egg production but has been criticised on animal welfare grounds as the birds are unable to exhibit their normal behaviours.[63]
In the developed world, the majority of the poultry reared for meat is raised indoors in big sheds, with automated equipment under environmentally controlled conditions. Chickens raised in this way are known as broilers, and genetic improvements have meant that they can be grown to slaughter weight within six or seven weeks of hatching. Newly hatched chicks are restricted to a small area and given supplementary heating. Litter on the floor absorbs the droppings and the area occupied is expanded as they grow. Feed and water is supplied automatically and the lighting is controlled. The birds may be harvested on several occasions or the whole shed may be cleared at one time.[64]
A similar rearing system is usually used for turkeys, which are less hardy than chickens, but they take longer to grow and are often moved on to separate fattening units to finish.[65] Ducks are particularly popular in Asia and Australia and can be killed at seven weeks under commercial conditions.[66]
Aquaculture
Aquaculture has been defined as "the farming of aquatic organisms including fish, molluscs, crustaceans and aquatic plants and implies some form of intervention in the rearing process to enhance production, such as regular stocking, feeding, protection from predators, etc. Farming also implies individual or corporate ownership of the stock being cultivated."[67] In practice it can take place in the sea or in freshwater, and be extensive or intensive. Whole bays, lakes or ponds may be devoted to aquaculture, or the farmed animal may be retained in cages (fish), artificial reefs, racks or strings (shellfish). Fish and prawns can be cultivated in rice paddies, either arriving naturally or being introduced, and both crops can be harvested together.[68]
Fish hatcheries provide larval and juvenile fish, crustaceans and shellfish, for use in aquaculture systems. When large enough these are transferred to growing-on tanks and sold to fish farms to reach harvest size. Some species that are commonly raised in hatcheries include shrimps, prawns, salmon, tilapia, oysters and scallops. Similar facilities can be used to raise species with conservation needs to be released into the wild, or game fish for restocking waterways. Important aspects of husbandry at these early stages include selection of breeding stock, control of water quality and nutrition. In the wild, there is a massive amount of mortality at the nursery stage; farmers seek to minimise this while at the same time maximising growth rates.[69]
Insects
Bees have been kept in hives since at least the First Dynasty of Egypt, five thousand years ago,[70] and man had been harvesting honey from the wild long before that. Fixed comb hives are used in many parts of the world and are made from any locally available material.[71] In more advanced economies, where modern strains of domestic bee have been selected for docility and productiveness, various designs of hive are used which enable the combs to be removed for processing and extraction of honey. Quite apart from the honey and wax they produce, honey bees are important pollinators of crops and wild plants, and in many places hives are transported around the countryside to assist in pollination.[72]
Sericulture, the rearing of silkworms, was first adopted by the Chinese during the Shang dynasty.[73] The only species farmed commercially is the domesticated silkmoth. When it spins its cocoon, each larva produces an exceedingly long, slender thread of silk. The larvae feed on mulberry leaves and in Europe, only one generation is normally raised each year as this is a deciduous tree. In China, Korea and Japan however, two generations are normal, and in the tropics, multiple generations are expected. Most production of silk occurs in the Far East, with a synthetic diet being used to rear the silkworms in Japan.[74]
Insects form part of the human diet in many cultures.[75] In Thailand, crickets are farmed for this purpose in the north of the country, and palm weevil larvae in the south. The crickets are kept in pens, boxes or drawers and fed on commercial pelleted poultry food, while the palm weevil larvae live on cabbage palm and sago palm trees, which limits their production to areas where these trees grow.[76] Another delicacy of this region is the bamboo caterpillar, and the best rearing and harvesting techniques in semi-natural habitats are being studied.[76]
Efectos
Environmental impact
Animal husbandry has a significant impact on the world environment. It is responsible for somewhere between 20 and 33% of the fresh water usage in the world,[77] and livestock, and the production of feed for them, occupy about a third of the earth's ice-free land.[78] Livestock production is a contributing factor in species extinction, desertification,[79] and habitat destruction.[80] Animal agriculture contributes to species extinction in various ways. Habitat is destroyed by clearing forests and converting land to grow feed crops and for animal grazing, while predators and herbivores are frequently targeted and hunted because of a perceived threat to livestock profits; for example, animal husbandry is responsible for up to 91% of the deforestation in the Amazon region.[81] In addition, livestock produce greenhouse gases. Cows produce some 570 million cubic metres of methane per day,[82] that accounts for from 35 to 40% of the overall methane emissions of the planet.[83] Livestock is responsible for 65% of all human-related emissions of the powerful and long-lived greenhouse gas nitrous oxide.[83]
As a result, ways of mitigating animal husbandry's environmental impact are being studied. Strategies include using biogas from manure,[84] genetic selection,[85][86] immunization, rumen defaunation, outcompetition of methanogenic archaea with acetogens,[87] introduction of methanotrophic bacteria into the rumen,[88][89] diet modification and grazing management, among others.[90][91][92] Certain diet changes (such as with Asparagopsis taxiformis) allow for a reduction of up to 99% in ruminant greenhouse gas emissions.[93][94]
Animal welfare
Since the 18th century, people have become increasingly concerned about the welfare of farm animals. Possible measures of welfare include longevity, behavior, physiology, reproduction, freedom from disease, and freedom from immunosuppression. Standards and laws for animal welfare have been created worldwide, broadly in line with the most widely held position in the western world, a form of utilitarianism: that it is morally acceptable for humans to use non-human animals, provided that no unnecessary suffering is caused, and that the benefits to humans outweigh the costs to the livestock. An opposing view is that animals have rights, should not be regarded as property, are not necessary to use, and should never be used by humans.[95][96][97][98][99] Live export of animals has risen to meet increased global demand for livestock such as in the Middle East. Animal rights activists have objected to long-distance transport of animals; one result was the banning of live exports from New Zealand in 2003.[100]
In culture
Since the 18th century, the farmer John Bull has represented English national identity, first in John Arbuthnot's political satires, and soon afterwards in cartoons by James Gillray and others including John Tenniel. He likes food, beer, dogs, horses, and country sports; he is practical and down to earth, and anti-intellectual.[101]
Farm animals are widespread in books and songs for children; the reality of animal husbandry is often distorted, softened, or idealized, giving children an almost entirely fictitious account of farm life. The books often depict happy animals free to roam in attractive countryside, a picture completely at odds with the realities of the impersonal, mechanized activities involved in modern intensive farming.[102]
Pigs, for example, appear in several of Beatrix Potter's "little books", as Piglet in A.A. Milne's Winnie the Pooh stories, and somewhat more darkly (with a hint of animals going to slaughter) as Babe in Dick King-Smith's The Sheep-Pig, and as Wilbur in E. B. White's Charlotte's Web.[103] Pigs tend to be "bearers of cheerfulness, good humour and innocence". Many of these books are completely anthropomorphic, dressing farm animals in clothes and having them walk on two legs, live in houses, and perform human activities.[102] The children's song "Old MacDonald Had a Farm" describes a farmer named MacDonald and the various animals he keeps, celebrating the noises they each make.[104]
Many urban children experience animal husbandry for the first time at a petting farm; in Britain, some five million people a year visit a farm of some kind. This presents some risk of infection, especially if children handle animals and then fail to wash their hands; a strain of E. coli infected 93 people who had visited a British interactive farm in an outbreak in 2009.[105] Historic farms such as those in the United States offer farmstays and "a carefully curated version of farming to those willing to pay for it",[106] sometimes giving visitors a romanticised image of a pastoral idyll from an unspecified time in the pre-industrial past.[106]
Ver también
- Agribusiness
- Animal science
- Dairy industry in the United States
- Dairy industry in the United Kingdom
- Food vs. feed
- Zootechnics
- Wildlife farming
Notas
- ^ Both the name Bull and the reference to bacon indicate the archetypal livestock farmer.
Referencias
Citations
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enlaces externos
- Animal husbandry practices – National Animal Interest Alliance