Coordenadas : 7 ° N 81 ° E / 7 ° N 81 ° E
Sri Lanka ( Reino Unido : / s r i l æ ŋ k ə , ʃ r i - / , Estados Unidos : / - l ɑː ŋ k ə / ( escuchar ) ; cingalés : ශ්රී ලංකා , romanizado: Sri Lanka ; Tamil : இலங்கை , romanizado: Ilaṅkai ), antes conocido como Ceilán , y oficialmente elRepública Socialista Democrática de Sri Lanka , es un país insular en el sur de Asia . Está situado en el Océano Índico , al suroeste de la Bahía de Bengala y al sureste del Mar Arábigo ; mientras estaba separado del subcontinente indio por el Golfo de Mannar y el Estrecho de Palk . Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte es su capital legislativa y Colombo es su ciudad y centro financiero más grande .
República Socialista Democrática de Sri Lanka ශ්රී ලංකා ප්රජාතාන්ත්රික සමාජවාදී ජනරජය ( cingalés ) இலங்கை சனநாயக சோசலிசக் குடியரசு ( tamil ) Sinhala : Śrī Laṅkā Prajātāntrika Samājavādī Janarajaya Tamil : Ilaṅkai Jaṉanāyaka Sōsalisak Kuṭiyarasu | |||||||||
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Capital | Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte (legislativo) [1] Colombo (ejecutivo y judicial) [2] 6 ° 56′N 79 ° 52′E / 6.933 ° N 79.867 ° E | ||||||||
Ciudad más grande | Colombo | ||||||||
Lenguajes oficiales | Cingalés tamil [3] | ||||||||
Idiomas reconocidos | inglés | ||||||||
Grupos étnicos (2012 [4] ) | 74,9% cingaleses 11,2% tamiles de Sri Lanka 9,2% moros de Sri Lanka 4,2% tamiles indios 0,5% Otros (incluidos burgueses , malayos , veddas , chinos , indios ) | ||||||||
Religión (2012) | 70,2% Budismo 12,6% Hinduismo 9,7% Islam 7,4% Cristianismo 0,1% Otro / Ninguno | ||||||||
Demonym (s) | de Sri Lanka | ||||||||
Gobierno | República constitucional unitaria semipresidencialista | ||||||||
• presidente | Gotabaya Rajapaksa | ||||||||
• Primer Ministro | Mahinda Rajapaksa | ||||||||
• Portavoz del Parlamento | Mahinda Yapa Abeywardena [5] | ||||||||
• Presidente del Tribunal Supremo | Jayantha Jayasuriya | ||||||||
Legislatura | Parlamento | ||||||||
Formación | |||||||||
• Reino establecido [6] | 543 a. C. | ||||||||
• Se convirtió en colonia británica | 1796 | ||||||||
• Independencia y dominio | 4 de febrero de 1948 | ||||||||
• República | 22 de mayo de 1972 | ||||||||
• Constitución actual | 7 de septiembre de 1978 | ||||||||
Área | |||||||||
• Total | 65,610 km 2 (25,330 millas cuadradas) ( 120 ° ) | ||||||||
• Agua (%) | 4.4 | ||||||||
Población | |||||||||
• Estimación 2020 | 21,919,000 [7] ( 57º ) | ||||||||
• censo de 2012 | 20,277,597 [8] | ||||||||
• Densidad | 327 / km 2 (846,9 / millas cuadradas) ( 43º ) | ||||||||
PIB ( PPA ) | Estimación 2021 | ||||||||
• Total | $ 306.997 mil millones [9] ( 56º ) | ||||||||
• Per cápita | $ 13,909 [9] ( 88º ) | ||||||||
PIB (nominal) | Estimación 2021 | ||||||||
• Total | $ 84.532 mil millones [9] ( 64º ) | ||||||||
• Per cápita | $ 3,830 [9] ( 113º ) | ||||||||
Gini (2016) | 39,8 [10] medio | ||||||||
IDH (2019) | 0,782 [11] alto · 72º | ||||||||
Divisa | Rupia de Sri Lanka (Rs) ( LKR ) | ||||||||
Zona horaria | UTC +5: 30 ( SLST ) | ||||||||
Formato de fecha |
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Lado de conducción | izquierda | ||||||||
Código de llamada | +94 | ||||||||
Código ISO 3166 | LK | ||||||||
TLD de Internet |
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Sitio web www .gov .lk | |||||||||
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La historia documentada de Sri Lanka abarca 3.000 años, con evidencia de asentamientos humanos prehistóricos que se remontan al menos a 125.000 años. [12] Tiene una rica herencia cultural, y los primeros escritos budistas conocidos de Sri Lanka, el Canon Pali , se remontan al Cuarto Concilio Budista en 29 a. C. [13] [14] Su ubicación geográfica y puertos profundos lo hicieron de gran importancia estratégica desde la época de la antigua Ruta de la Seda hasta la moderna Ruta Marítima de la Seda . [15] [16] [17] Su ubicación como un importante centro comercial lo hizo conocido tanto en el Lejano Oriente como en Europa desde el período Anuradhapura . El comercio del país en artículos de lujo y especias atrajo a comerciantes de muchas naciones, creando una población diversa de Sri Lanka. Durante un período de gran crisis política , los portugueses , cuya llegada a Sri Lanka fue en gran parte accidental, buscaron controlar las regiones marítimas de la isla y su lucrativo comercio exterior. Las posesiones portuguesas se tomaron más tarde por el holandés . Las posesiones holandesas fueron luego tomadas por los británicos , quienes luego extendieron su control sobre toda la isla, colonizándola desde 1815 hasta 1948. Un movimiento nacional por la independencia política surgió a principios del siglo XX, y en 1948, Ceilán se convirtió en república y adoptó su nombre actual en 1972. La historia reciente de Sri Lanka se ha visto empañada por una guerra civil de 26 años , que terminó de manera decisiva cuando las Fuerzas Armadas de Sri Lanka derrotaron a los Tigres de Liberación de Tamil Eelam en 2009. [18]
Sri Lanka es un estado multinacional , hogar de diversas culturas, idiomas y etnias. Los cingaleses forman la mayoría de la población del país; y la gran minoría de tamiles también ha jugado un papel influyente en la historia de la isla, mientras que moros , burgueses , malayos , chinos y los indígenas Vedda también son grupos establecidos. [19] Ha tenido una larga historia de compromiso internacional, como miembro fundador de la SAARC y miembro de las Naciones Unidas , la Commonwealth of Nations , el G77 y el Movimiento de Países No Alineados . Sri Lanka es el único país del sur de Asia con una calificación alta en el Índice de Desarrollo Humano , con el segundo ingreso per cápita más alto de la región.
Toponimia
En la antigüedad, los viajeros conocían a Sri Lanka por una variedad de nombres. Según el Mahavamsa , el legendario príncipe Vijaya llamó a la isla Tambapanni (' manos rojo cobre ' o 'tierra rojo cobre'), porque las manos de sus seguidores estaban enrojecidas por el suelo rojo del área donde aterrizó. [20] [21] En la mitología hindú , el término Lankā ('Isla') aparece pero se desconoce si se refiere al estado moderno. Pero los eruditos generalmente están de acuerdo en que debe haber sido Sri Lanka porque así se dice en el texto Mahavamsa de Sri Lanka del siglo quinto . [22] El término tamil Eelam ( tamil : ஈழம் , romanizado: īḻam ) se utilizó para designar toda la isla en la literatura Sangam . [23] [24] La isla era conocida bajo el gobierno de Chola como Mummudi Cholamandalam ('reino de los tres Cholas coronados '). [25]
Los geógrafos griegos antiguos lo llamaron Taprobanā ( griego antiguo : Ταπροβανᾶ ) o Taprobanē ( Ταπροβανῆ ) [26] de la palabra Tambapanni . Los persas y árabes se refirieron a ella como Sarandīb (el origen de la palabra " serendipia ") del sánscrito Siṃhaladvīpaḥ . [27] [28] Ceilão , el nombre dado a Sri Lanka por el Imperio portugués cuando llegó en 1505, [29] fue transcrito al inglés como Ceilán . [30] Como colonia de la corona británica , la isla se conocía como Ceilán; logró la independencia como el Dominio de Ceilán en 1948.
El país ahora se conoce en Sinhala como Śrī Laṅkā ( Sinhala : ශ්රී ලංකා ) y en Tamil como Ilaṅkai ( Tamil : இலங்கை , IPA: [iˈlaŋɡaɪ] ). En 1972, su nombre formal fue cambiado a "República Libre, Soberana e Independiente de Sri Lanka". Posteriormente, el 7 de septiembre de 1978, se cambió a "República Socialista Democrática de Sri Lanka". [31] [32] Como el nombre Ceilán todavía aparece en los nombres de varias organizaciones, el gobierno de Sri Lanka anunció en 2011 un plan para cambiar el nombre de todas aquellas sobre las que tiene autoridad. [33]
Historia
Sri Lanka prehistórica
La prehistoria de Sri Lanka se remonta a 125.000 años y posiblemente incluso hasta 500.000 años. [34] La era abarca el Paleolítico , Mesolítico y principios de la Edad del Hierro . Entre los asentamientos humanos paleolíticos descubiertos en Sri Lanka, Pahiyangala (llamado así por el monje viajero chino Faxian ), que se remonta a 37.000 años AP, [35] Batadombalena (28.500 años AP) [36] y Belilena (12.000 años AP) son los más importantes. En estas cuevas, los arqueólogos han encontrado los restos de humanos anatómicamente modernos a los que han llamado Hombre de Balangoda , y otra evidencia [37] que sugiere que pueden haberse dedicado a la agricultura y haber tenido perros domésticos para la caza. [38]
Los primeros habitantes de Sri Lanka fueron probablemente antepasados del pueblo Vedda , [39] un pueblo indígena de aproximadamente 2.500 que vive en la actual Sri Lanka.
Durante el período protohistórico (1000–500 a. C.), Sri Lanka estuvo unida culturalmente con el sur de la India, [40] y compartió los mismos entierros megalíticos, cerámica , tecnología del hierro, técnicas agrícolas y grafitis megalíticos . [41] [42] Este complejo cultural se extendió desde el sur de la India junto con clanes dravidianos como el Velir , antes de la migración de hablantes de prakrit . [43] [44] [41]
Una de las primeras referencias escritas a la isla se encuentra en la epopeya india Ramayana , que proporciona detalles de un reino llamado Lanka que fue creado por el escultor divino Vishwakarma para Kubera , el Señor de la Riqueza. [45] Se dice que Kubera fue derrocado por su hermanastro demonio Ravana . [46]
Sri Lanka antigua
De acuerdo con el Mahavamsa , un Pāḷi crónica escrita en el siglo 5 dC, los habitantes originales de Sri Lanka se dice que son los Yakshas y nagas . También se han descubierto en Sri Lanka cementerios antiguos que se utilizaron antes del 600 a. C. y otros signos de civilización avanzada. [47] La historia cingalesa comienza tradicionalmente en 543 a. C. con la llegada del príncipe Vijaya , un príncipe semilegendario que navegó con 700 seguidores a Sri Lanka, después de ser expulsado del Reino de Vanga (actual Bengala ). [48] Estableció el Reino de Tambapanni , cerca de la actual Mannar . Vijaya (Singha) es el primero de los aproximadamente 189 monarcas de Sri Lanka descritos en crónicas como Dipavamsa , Mahāvaṃsa , Cūḷavaṃsa y Rājāvaliya . [49]
Una vez que los hablantes de prakrit alcanzaron el dominio en la isla, el Mahavamsa relata además la migración posterior de las novias reales y las castas de servicio del reino de Tamil Pandya al reino de Anuradhapura en el período histórico temprano. [50]
El período Anuradhapura (377 a. C. - 1017 d. C.) comenzó con el establecimiento del Reino de Anuradhapura en 380 a. C. durante el reinado de Pandukabhaya . A partir de entonces, Anuradhapura fue la capital del país durante casi 1.400 años. [51] Los antiguos habitantes de Sri Lanka se destacaron en la construcción de ciertos tipos de estructuras como tanques , dagobas y palacios. [52] La sociedad experimentó una gran transformación durante el reinado de Devanampiya Tissa , con la llegada del budismo de la India. En 250 a. C., [53] Mahinda , un bhikkhu y el hijo del emperador Maurya Ashoka llegaron a Mihintale llevando el mensaje del budismo. [54] Su misión convenció al monarca, quien abrazó la fe y la propagó por toda la población cingalesa . [55]
Los reinos sucesivos de Sri Lanka mantendrían muchas escuelas y monasterios budistas y apoyarían la propagación del budismo en otros países del sudeste asiático . Los bhikkhus de Sri Lanka estudiaron en la famosa y antigua Universidad Budista de Nalanda , que fue destruida por Bakhtiyar Khilji . Es probable que muchas de las escrituras de Nalanda se conserven en muchos monasterios de Sri Lanka y que la forma escrita del Tripiṭaka , incluida la literatura budista cingalesa, fuera parte de la Universidad de Nalanda. [56] En 245 a. C., bhikkhuni Sanghamitta llegó con el árbol Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi , que se considera un retoño del histórico árbol Bodhi bajo el cual Gautama Buda se iluminó. [57] Se considera el árbol plantado por humanos más antiguo (con un registro histórico continuo) del mundo. ( Bodhivamsa ) [58]
Sri Lanka experimentó la primera de muchas invasiones extranjeras durante el reinado de Suratissa , quien fue derrotado por dos comerciantes de caballos llamados Sena y Guttika del sur de la India . [55] La siguiente invasión se produjo inmediatamente en 205 a. C. por una chola llamada Elara , que derrocó a Asela y gobernó el país durante 44 años. Dutugamunu , el hijo mayor del sub-rey regional del sur, Kavan Tissa , derrotó a Elara en la Batalla de Vijithapura . Durante sus dos milenios y medio de existencia, el Reino de Sinhala fue invadido al menos ocho veces por dinastías vecinas del sur de la India, como Chola , Pandya , Chera y Pallava . Todos estos invasores fueron posteriormente rechazados. [59] También hubo incursiones de los reinos de Kalinga (la moderna Odisha ) y de la península malaya .
El Cuarto Concilio Budista del Budismo Theravada se llevó a cabo en el Anuradhapura Maha Viharaya en Sri Lanka bajo el patrocinio de Valagamba de Anuradhapura en el 25 a. C. El consejo se celebró en respuesta a un año en el que las cosechas en Sri Lanka fueron particularmente malas y muchos monjes budistas murieron posteriormente de hambre. Debido a que el Canon Pali era en ese momento literatura oral mantenida en varias recensiones por dhammabhāṇaka s ( recitadores del dharma ), los monjes sobrevivientes reconocieron el peligro de no escribirlo, de modo que incluso si algunos de los monjes cuyo deber era estudiar y recordar partes del Canon para generaciones posteriores murieron, las enseñanzas no se perderían. [60] Después del concilio, se llevaron manuscritos en hojas de palma que contenían el Canon completo a otros países como Birmania , Tailandia , Camboya y Laos .
Sri Lanka fue el primer país asiático conocido en tener una gobernante femenina: Anula de Anuradhapura (r. 47-42 a. C.). [61] Los monarcas de Sri Lanka emprendieron algunos proyectos de construcción notables como Sigiriya , la llamada "Fortaleza en el cielo", construida durante el reinado de Kashyapa I de Anuradhapura , quien gobernó entre 477 y 495. La fortaleza de roca de Sigiriya está rodeada por una extensa red de murallas y fosos. Dentro de este recinto protector se encontraban jardines, estanques, pabellones, palacios y otras estructuras. [62] [63]
En 993 EC, la invasión del emperador Chola Rajaraja I obligó al entonces gobernante cingalés Mahinda V a huir a la parte sur de Sri Lanka. Aprovechando esta situación, Rajendra I , hijo de Rajaraja I, lanzó una gran invasión en 1017. Mahinda V fue capturado y llevado a la India, y los Cholas saquearon la ciudad de Anuradhapura provocando la caída del Reino de Anuradhapura . Posteriormente, trasladaron la capital a Polonnaruwa . [64]
Sri Lanka posclásico
Después de una campaña de diecisiete años, Vijayabahu I expulsó con éxito a los chola de Sri Lanka en 1070, reuniendo al país por primera vez en más de un siglo. [65] [66] A petición suya, se enviaron monjes ordenados de Birmania a Sri Lanka para restablecer el budismo, que casi había desaparecido del país durante el reinado de Chola. [67] Durante el período medieval, Sri Lanka se dividió en tres sub-territorios, a saber Ruhunu , Pihiti y Maya . [68]
El sistema de riego de Sri Lanka se amplió considerablemente durante el reinado de Parākramabāhu el Grande (1153-1186). [69] Este período se considera como un momento en que Sri Lanka estaba en el apogeo de su poder. [70] [71] Construyó 1.470 embalses - el número más alto por cualquier gobernante en la historia de Sri Lanka - reparó 165 presas, 3.910 canales, 163 grandes embalses y 2.376 mini embalses. [72] Su construcción más famosa es el Parakrama Samudra , [73] el mayor proyecto de irrigación de la Sri Lanka medieval. El reinado de Parākramabāhu es memorable por dos campañas importantes: en el sur de la India como parte de una guerra de sucesión de Pandyan, y un ataque punitivo contra los reyes de Ramanna ( Birmania ) por varios insultos percibidos a Sri Lanka. [74]
Después de su fallecimiento, Sri Lanka decayó gradualmente en el poder. En 1215, Kalinga Magha , un invasor de origen incierto, identificado como el fundador del reino de Jaffna, invadió y capturó el reino de Polonnaruwa . Navegó desde Kalinga [72] 690 millas náuticas en 100 grandes barcos con un ejército de 24.000 efectivos. A diferencia de los invasores anteriores, saqueó , saqueó y destruyó todo en los antiguos reinos de Anuradhapura y Polonnaruwa más allá de la recuperación. [75] Sus prioridades al gobernar eran extraer todo lo posible de la tierra y anular tantas tradiciones de Rajarata como fuera posible. Su reinado vio la migración masiva de los nativos cingaleses hacia el sur y el oeste de Sri Lanka, y hacia el interior montañoso, en un intento por escapar de su poder. [76] [77]
Sri Lanka nunca se recuperó realmente del impacto de la invasión de Kalinga Magha. El rey Vijayabâhu III, que dirigió la resistencia, llevó el reino a Dambadeniya . Mientras tanto, el norte eventualmente se convirtió en el reino de Jaffna . [76] [77] El reino de Jaffna nunca estuvo bajo el dominio de ningún reino del sur excepto en una ocasión; en 1450, tras la conquista dirigida por el hijo adoptivo del rey Parâkramabâhu VI , el príncipe Sapumal . [78] Gobernó el norte desde 1450 hasta 1467 EC. [79]
Los siguientes tres siglos a partir de 1215 estuvieron marcados por colecciones de capitales que cambiaron caleidoscópicamente en el sur y centro de Sri Lanka, incluyendo Dambadeniya, Yapahuwa , Gampola , Raigama , Kotte , [80] Sitawaka , y finalmente, Kandy . El almirante chino Zheng He y su fuerza expedicionaria naval desembarcaron en Galle, Sri Lanka en 1409 y entraron en batalla con el rey local Vira Alakesvara de Gampola . Zheng He capturó al rey Vira Alakesvara y luego lo liberó. [81] [82] [83] [84] Zheng He erigió la Inscripción trilingüe de Galle , una tablilla de piedra en Galle escrita en tres idiomas ( chino , tamil y persa ), para conmemorar su visita. [85] [86] La estela fue descubierta por SH Thomlin en Galle en 1911 y ahora se conserva en el Museo Nacional de Colombo .
Sri Lanka moderna temprana
El período moderno temprano de Sri Lanka comienza con la llegada del soldado y explorador portugués Lourenço de Almeida , hijo de Francisco de Almeida , en 1505. [87] En 1517, los portugueses construyeron un fuerte en la ciudad portuaria de Colombo y se extendieron gradualmente. su control sobre las zonas costeras. En 1592, después de décadas de guerras intermitentes con los portugueses, Vimaladharmasuriya I trasladó su reino a la ciudad interior de Kandy , un lugar que consideró más seguro contra los ataques. [88] En 1619, sucumbiendo a los ataques de los portugueses, la existencia independiente del reino de Jaffna llegó a su fin. [89]
Durante el reinado de Rajasinha II , los exploradores holandeses llegaron a la isla. En 1638, el rey firmó un tratado con la Compañía Holandesa de las Indias Orientales para deshacerse de los portugueses que gobernaban la mayoría de las zonas costeras. [90] La siguiente guerra holandés-portuguesa resultó en una victoria holandesa, con Colombo cayendo en manos holandesas en 1656. Los holandeses permanecieron en las áreas que habían capturado, violando así el tratado que habían firmado en 1638. El pueblo burgués , un grupo étnico, surgió como resultado de la mezcla entre los holandeses y los nativos de Sri Lanka en este período. [91]
El Reino de Kandy fue la última monarquía independiente de Sri Lanka. [92] En 1595, Vimaladharmasurya trajo la sagrada Reliquia del Diente , el símbolo tradicional de la autoridad real y religiosa entre los cingaleses , a Kandy y construyó el Templo del Diente . [92] A pesar de la guerra intermitente en curso con los europeos, el reino sobrevivió. Más tarde, surgió una crisis de sucesión en Kandy tras la muerte del rey Vira Narendrasinha en 1739. Estaba casado con una princesa Nayakkar de habla telugu del sur de la India ( Madurai ) y no tuvo hijos con ella. [92]
Finalmente, con el apoyo de bhikku Weliwita Sarankara, la corona pasó al hermano de una de las princesas de Narendrasinha, pasando por alto el derecho de "Unambuwe Bandara" , el propio hijo de Narendrasinha de una concubina cingalesa . [93] El nuevo rey fue coronado Sri Vijaya Rajasinha más tarde ese año. Los reyes de la dinastía Nayakkar lanzaron varios ataques en áreas controladas por los holandeses, que resultaron infructuosos. [94]
Durante las Guerras Napoleónicas , por temor a que el control francés de los Países Bajos pudiera entregar Sri Lanka a los franceses, Gran Bretaña ocupó las áreas costeras de la isla (que llamaron Ceilán) con poca dificultad en 1796. [95] Dos años más tarde, en 1798. , Sri Rajadhi Rajasinha , tercero de los cuatro reyes Nayakkar de Sri Lanka, murió de una fiebre. Tras su muerte, fue coronado un sobrino de Rajadhi Rajasinha, Kannasamy, de dieciocho años. [96] El joven rey, ahora llamado Sri Vikrama Rajasinha , se enfrentó a una invasión británica en 1803, pero tomó represalias con éxito. La Primera Guerra de Kandy terminó en un punto muerto. [96]
Para entonces toda la zona costera estaba bajo la Compañía Británica de las Indias Orientales como resultado del Tratado de Amiens . El 14 de febrero de 1815, Kandy fue ocupada por los británicos en la segunda guerra de Kandy , poniendo fin a la independencia de Sri Lanka. [96] Sri Vikrama Rajasinha, el último monarca nativo de Sri Lanka, fue exiliado a la India. [97] La Convención de Kandy cedió formalmente todo el país al Imperio Británico. Los intentos de los nobles de Sri Lanka de socavar el poder británico en 1818 durante la Rebelión de Uva fueron frustrados por el gobernador Robert Brownrigg . [98]
El comienzo del período moderno de Sri Lanka está marcado por las reformas Colebrooke-Cameron de 1833. [99] Introdujeron una cultura política utilitaria y liberal en el país basada en el estado de derecho y fusionaron las provincias de Kandy y marítimas como una sola. unidad de gobierno. [99] Se establecieron un consejo ejecutivo y un consejo legislativo , que luego se convirtieron en la base de una legislatura representativa. En ese momento, los experimentos con plantaciones de café tuvieron un gran éxito. [100]
Pronto, el café se convirtió en el principal producto de exportación de Sri Lanka. La caída de los precios del café como resultado de la depresión de 1847 paralizó el desarrollo económico y llevó al gobernador a introducir una serie de impuestos sobre las armas de fuego, perros, tiendas, barcos, etc., y reintroducir una forma de rajakariya , que requería seis días de trabajo gratis en carreteras o el pago de un equivalente en efectivo. [100] Estas duras medidas antagonizaron a los lugareños, y otra rebelión estalló en 1848. [101] Una devastadora enfermedad de las hojas, Hemileia vastatrix , azotó las plantaciones de café en 1869, destruyendo toda la industria en quince años. [102] Los británicos encontraron rápidamente un reemplazo: al abandonar el café, comenzaron a cultivar té en su lugar. La producción de té en Sri Lanka prosperó en las décadas siguientes. Las plantaciones de caucho a gran escala comenzaron a principios del siglo XX.
A fines del siglo XIX, surgió una nueva clase social educada que trascendía la raza y la casta a través de los intentos británicos de dotar de personal al Servicio Civil de Ceilán y las profesiones legales, educativas, de ingeniería y médicas con nativos. [103] Los nuevos líderes representaron a los diversos grupos étnicos de la población en el Consejo Legislativo de Ceilán sobre una base comunal. El avivamiento budista e hindú reaccionó contra las actividades misioneras cristianas . [104] [105] Las dos primeras décadas del siglo XX se caracterizan por la armonía única entre el liderazgo político cingalés y tamil , que desde entonces se ha perdido. [106]
En 1919, las principales organizaciones políticas cingalesas y tamiles se unieron para formar el Congreso Nacional de Ceilán, bajo el liderazgo de Ponnambalam Arunachalam , [107] presionando a los amos coloniales para más reformas constitucionales. Pero sin un apoyo popular masivo, y con el estímulo del gobernador a la "representación comunal" mediante la creación de un "asiento de Colombo" que colgaba entre los cingaleses y los tamiles, el Congreso perdió impulso hacia mediados de la década de 1920. [108]
Las reformas de Donoughmore de 1931 repudiaron la representación comunal e introdujeron el sufragio universal para adultos (el sufragio era del 4% antes de las reformas). Este paso fue fuertemente criticado por los líderes políticos tamiles, quienes se dieron cuenta de que serían reducidos a una minoría en el recién creado Consejo de Estado de Ceilán , que sucedió al consejo legislativo. [109] [110] En 1937, el líder tamil GG Ponnambalam exigió una representación del 50-50 (50% para los cingaleses y 50% para otros grupos étnicos) en el Consejo de Estado. Sin embargo, esta demanda no fue satisfecha por las reformas de Soulbury de 1944-1945.
Sri Lanka contemporánea
La constitución de Soulbury marcó el comienzo del estado de dominio , con la independencia proclamada el 4 de febrero de 1948. [111] DS Senanayake se convirtió en el primer primer ministro de Ceilán . [112] Destacados líderes tamiles , incluidos Ponnambalam y Arunachalam Mahadeva, se unieron a su gabinete. [109] [113] La Royal Navy británica permaneció estacionada en Trincomalee hasta 1956. Una manifestación popular en todo el país contra la retirada de las raciones de arroz resultó en la dimisión del primer ministro Dudley Senanayake . [114]
SWRD Bandaranaike fue elegido primer ministro en 1956. Su gobierno de tres años tuvo un profundo impacto a través de su papel autoproclamado de "defensor de la cultura cingalesa sitiada". [115] Introdujo la controvertida Ley Única de Sinhala , reconociendo el Sinhala como el único idioma oficial del gobierno. Aunque parcialmente revocado en 1958, el proyecto de ley planteaba una grave preocupación para la comunidad tamil, que percibía en él una amenaza para su idioma y cultura. [116] [117] [118]
El Partido Federal (FP) lanzó un movimiento de resistencia no violenta ( satyagraha ) contra el proyecto de ley, lo que llevó a Bandaranaike a llegar a un acuerdo ( Pacto Bandaranaike-Chelvanayakam ) con SJV Chelvanayakam , líder del FP, para resolver el inminente conflicto étnico. [119] El pacto resultó ineficaz frente a las protestas en curso de la oposición y el clero budista. El proyecto de ley, junto con varios planes de colonización del gobierno , contribuyó mucho al rencor político entre los líderes políticos cingaleses y tamiles. [120] Bandaranaike fue asesinado por un monje budista extremista en 1959. [121]
Sirimavo Bandaranaike , la viuda de Bandaranaike, asumió el cargo de primera ministra en 1960 y resistió un intento de golpe de Estado en 1962. Durante su segundo mandato como primera ministra, el gobierno instituyó políticas económicas socialistas, fortaleciendo los lazos con la Unión Soviética y China. , al tiempo que se promueve una política de no alineación. En 1971, Ceilán experimentó una insurrección marxista , que fue rápidamente reprimida. En 1972, el país se convirtió en una república llamada Sri Lanka, repudiando su estado de dominio. Los agravios prolongados de las minorías y el uso del emocionalismo comunitario como arma de campaña electoral por parte de los líderes cingaleses y tamiles incitaron a una incipiente militancia tamil en el norte durante la década de 1970. [122] La política de normalización del gobierno de Sirimavo para rectificar las disparidades creadas en la matrícula universitaria, que fue en esencia una acción afirmativa para ayudar a los estudiantes en situación de desventaja geográfica a obtener educación terciaria, [123] tuvo como resultado la reducción de la proporción de estudiantes tamiles a nivel universitario. y actuó como catalizador inmediato del aumento de la militancia. [124] [125] El asesinato del alcalde de Jaffna Alfred Duraiyappah en 1975 por los Tigres de Liberación de Tamil Eelam (LTTE) marcó un punto de crisis. [126] [127]
El gobierno de JR Jayawardene llegó al poder en 1977, derrotando al gobierno del Frente Unido, en gran parte impopular . [128] Jayawardene introdujo una nueva constitución , junto con una economía de libre mercado y una poderosa presidencia ejecutiva inspirada en la de Francia. Convirtió a Sri Lanka en el primer país del sur de Asia en liberalizar su economía. [129] A partir de 1983, las tensiones étnicas se manifestaron en una insurgencia intermitente contra el gobierno por parte de los LTTE. Un ataque de los LTTE contra 13 soldados dio lugar a disturbios raciales contra los tamiles en julio de 1983, presuntamente respaldados por ministros de línea dura cingaleses , lo que provocó que más de 150.000 civiles tamiles huyeran de la isla en busca de asilo en otros países. [130] [131]
Los lapsos en la política exterior dieron como resultado que la India fortaleciera a los Tigres proporcionándoles armas y entrenamiento. [132] [133] [134] En 1987, se firmó el Acuerdo de Indo-Sri Lanka y se desplegó la Fuerza de Mantenimiento de la Paz de la India (IPKF) en el norte de Sri Lanka para estabilizar la región neutralizando a los LTTE. [135] El mismo año, el JVP lanzó su segunda insurrección en el sur de Sri Lanka, [136] requiriendo el redespliegue de la IPKF en 1990. [137] En octubre de 1990, el LTTE expulsó a los moros de Sri Lanka (musulmanes por religión) del norte de Sri Lanka. Lanka. [138] En 2002, el gobierno de Sri Lanka y los LTTE firmaron un acuerdo de alto el fuego mediado por Noruega. [118]
El tsunami asiático de 2004 mató a más de 35.000 en Sri Lanka. [139] De 1985 a 2006, el gobierno de Sri Lanka y los insurgentes tamiles mantuvieron cuatro rondas de conversaciones de paz sin éxito. Tanto el LTTE como el gobierno reanudaron los combates en 2006, y el gobierno se retiró oficialmente del alto el fuego en 2008. [118] En 2009, bajo la presidencia de Mahinda Rajapaksa , las Fuerzas Armadas de Sri Lanka derrotaron al LTTE y restablecieron el control de la todo el país por el Gobierno de Sri Lanka. [140] En total, entre 60.000 y 100.000 personas murieron durante los 26 años de conflicto. [141] [142]
Geografía
Sri Lanka es una nación insular con forma de perla en el sur de Asia, que se encuentra en la Placa India , una importante placa tectónica que antes formaba parte de la Placa Indoaustraliana . [143] Es en el suroeste del Océano Índico de la Bahía de Bengala , entre las latitudes 5 ° y 10 ° N y longitudes 79 ° y 82 ° E . [144] Sri Lanka está separada de la parte continental del subcontinente indio por el Golfo de Mannar y el Estrecho de Palk . Según la mitología hindú , existía un puente terrestre entre el continente indio y Sri Lanka. Ahora es solo una cadena de bancos de piedra caliza que quedan sobre el nivel del mar . [145] Las leyendas afirman que era transitable a pie hasta 1480 EC, hasta que los ciclones profundizaron el canal. [146] [147] Algunas porciones siguen siendo tan superficiales como 1 metro (3 pies), lo que dificulta la navegación. [148] La isla consiste principalmente en llanuras costeras planas a onduladas, con montañas que se elevan solo en la parte centro-sur. El punto más alto es Pidurutalagala , alcanzando los 2.524 metros (8.281 pies) sobre el nivel del mar.
Sri Lanka tiene 103 ríos. El más largo de ellos es el río Mahaweli , que se extiende 335 kilómetros (208 millas). [149] Estos cursos de agua dan lugar a 51 cascadas naturales de 10 metros (33 pies) o más. La más alta son las cataratas Bambarakanda , con una altura de 263 metros (863 pies). [150] La costa de Sri Lanka tiene 1.585 km (985 millas) de largo. [151] Sri Lanka reclama una zona económica exclusiva de 200 millas náuticas , que es aproximadamente 6,7 veces la superficie terrestre de Sri Lanka. La costa y las aguas adyacentes sustentan ecosistemas marinos altamente productivos, como los arrecifes de coral periféricos y los lechos poco profundos de pastos marinos costeros y estuarinos . [152]
Sri Lanka tiene 45 estuarios y 40 lagunas . [151] El ecosistema de manglares de Sri Lanka se extiende por más de 7.000 hectáreas y jugó un papel vital en amortiguar la fuerza de las olas en el tsunami del Océano Índico de 2004 . [153] La isla es rica en minerales como ilmenita , feldespato , grafito , sílice , caolín , mica y torio . [154] [155] También se ha confirmado la existencia de petróleo y gas en el Golfo de Mannar y se está realizando la extracción de cantidades recuperables. [156]
Clima
El clima es tropical y cálido, debido a los efectos moderadores de los vientos oceánicos. Las temperaturas medias oscilan entre los 17 ° C (62,6 ° F) en las tierras altas centrales , donde pueden ocurrir heladas durante varios días en el invierno, hasta un máximo de 33 ° C (91,4 ° F) en otras áreas de baja altitud. Las temperaturas medias anuales oscilan entre 28 ° C (82,4 ° F) y casi 31 ° C (87,8 ° F). Las temperaturas diurnas y nocturnas pueden variar entre 14 ° C (25,2 ° F) y 18 ° C (32,4 ° F). [157]
El patrón de lluvia está influenciado por los vientos monzónicos del Océano Índico y la Bahía de Bengala. La "zona húmeda" y algunas de las laderas de barlovento de las tierras altas centrales reciben hasta 2.500 milímetros (98,4 pulgadas) de lluvia cada año, pero las laderas de sotavento en el este y el noreste reciben poca lluvia. La mayor parte de las partes este, sureste y norte de Sri Lanka comprenden la "zona seca", que recibe entre 1200 y 1900 mm (47 y 75 pulgadas) de lluvia al año. [158]
Las costas áridas del noroeste y sureste reciben la menor cantidad de lluvia en 800 a 1200 mm (31 a 47 pulgadas) por año. Se producen tormentas periódicas y, a veces, los ciclones tropicales traen cielos nublados y lluvias al suroeste, noreste y este de la isla. La humedad es típicamente más alta en el suroeste y las áreas montañosas y depende de los patrones estacionales de lluvia. [159] Un aumento en la precipitación promedio junto con eventos de lluvias más fuertes ha resultado en inundaciones recurrentes y daños relacionados a la infraestructura, el suministro de servicios públicos y la economía urbana. [160]
Flora y fauna
Sri Lanka contains four terrestrial ecoregions: Sri Lanka lowland rain forests, Sri Lanka montane rain forests, Sri Lanka dry-zone dry evergreen forests, and Deccan thorn scrub forests.[162]
Western Ghats of India and Sri Lanka were included among the first 18 global biodiversity hotspots due to high levels of species endemism. The number of biodiversity hotspots has now increased to 34.[163] Sri Lanka has the highest biodiversity per unit area among Asian countries for flowering plants and all vertebrate groups except birds.[164] A remarkably high proportion of the species among its flora and fauna, 27% of the 3,210 flowering plants and 22% of the mammals, are endemic.[165] Sri Lanka supports a rich avifauna of that stands at 453 species and this include 240 species of birds that are known to bread in the country. 33 species are accepted by some ornithologists as endemic while some ornithologists consider only 27 are endemic and the remaining six are considered as proposed endemics.[166] Sri Lanka's protected areas are administrated by two government bodies; The Department of Forest Conservation and the Department of Wildlife Conservation. Department of Wildlife Conservation administrates 61 wildlife sanctuaries, 22 national parks, four nature reserves, three strict nature reserves, and one jungle corridor while Department of Forest Conservation oversees 65 conservation forests and one national heritage wilderness area. 26.5% of the country's land area is legally protected. This is a higher percentage of protected areas when compared to the rest of Asia.[167]
Flowering acacias flourish on the arid Jaffna Peninsula. Among the trees of the dry-land forests are valuable species such as satinwood, ebony, ironwood, mahogany and teak. The wet zone is a tropical evergreen forest with tall trees, broad foliage, and a dense undergrowth of vines and creepers. Subtropical evergreen forests resembling those of temperate climates flourish in the higher altitudes.[168]
Yala National Park in the southeast protects herds of elephant, deer, and peacocks. The Wilpattu National Park in the northwest, the largest national park, preserves the habitats of many water birds such as storks, pelicans, ibis, and spoonbills. The island has four biosphere reserves: Bundala, Hurulu Forest Reserve, the Kanneliya-Dediyagala-Nakiyadeniya, and Sinharaja.[169]
Sinharaja is home to 26 endemic birds and 20 rainforest species, including the elusive red-faced malkoha, the green-billed coucal and the Sri Lanka blue magpie. The untapped genetic potential of Sinharaja flora is enormous. Of the 211 woody trees and lianas within the reserve, 139 (66%) are endemic. The total vegetation density, including trees, shrubs, herbs, and seedlings, has been estimated at 240,000 individuals per hectare. The Minneriya National Park borders the Minneriya Tank, which is an important source of water for elephants inhabiting the surrounding forests. Dubbed "The Gathering", the congregation of elephants can be seen on the tank-bed in the late dry season (August to October) as the surrounding water sources steadily disappear. The park also encompasses a range of micro-habitats which include classic dry zone tropical monsoonal evergreen forest, thick stands of giant bamboo, hilly pastures (patanas), and grasslands (talawas).[170]
During the Mahaweli Program of the 1970s and 1980s in northern Sri Lanka, the government set aside four areas of land totalling 1,900 km2 (730 sq mi) as national parks. Statistics of Sri Lanka's forest cover show rapid deforestation from 1956 to 2010. In 1956, 44.2 percent of the country's land area had forest cover. Forest cover depleted rapidly in recent decades; 29.6 percent in 1999, 28.7 percent in 2010.[171]
Gobierno y políticas
Sri Lanka is a democratic republic and a unitary state which is governed by a semi-presidential system, with a mixture of a presidential system and a parliamentary system.[172] Sri Lanka is the oldest democracy in Asia.[173] Most provisions of the constitution can be amended by a two-thirds majority in parliament. The amendment of certain basic features such as the clauses on language, religion, and reference to Sri Lanka as a unitary state require both a two-thirds majority and approval in a nationwide referendum.
In common with many democracies, the Sri Lankan government has three branches:
- Executive: The President of Sri Lanka is the head of state; the commander in chief of the armed forces; head of government, and is popularly elected for a five-year term.[174] The president heads the cabinet and appoints ministers from elected members of parliament.[175] The president is immune from legal proceedings while in office with respect to any acts done or omitted to be done by him or her in either an official or private capacity.[176] Following passage of the 19th amendment to the constitution in 2015, the president has two terms, which previously stood at no term limit.
- Legislative: The Parliament of Sri Lanka is a unicameral 225-member legislature with 196 members elected in multi-seat constituencies and 29 elected by proportional representation.[177] Members are elected by universal suffrage for a five-year term. The president may summon, suspend, or end a legislative session and dissolve Parliament any time after four and a half years. The parliament reserves the power to make all laws.[178] The president's deputy, the prime minister, leads the ruling party in parliament and shares many executive responsibilities, mainly in domestic affairs.
- Judicial: Sri Lanka's judiciary consists of a Supreme Court – the highest and final superior court of record,[178] a Court of Appeal, High Courts and a number of subordinate courts. The highly complex legal system reflects diverse cultural influences.[179] Criminal law is based almost entirely on British law. Basic civil law derives from Roman law and Dutch law. Laws pertaining to marriage, divorce, and inheritance are communal.[180] Because of ancient customary practices and/or religion, the Sinhala customary law (Kandyan law), the Thesavalamai, and Sharia law are followed in special cases.[181] The president appoints judges to the Supreme Court, the Court of Appeal, and the High Courts. A judicial service commission, composed of the chief justice and two Supreme Court judges, appoints, transfers, and dismisses lower court judges.
Politics
The current political culture in Sri Lanka is a contest between two rival coalitions led by the centre-left and progressive United People's Freedom Alliance (UPFA), an offspring of Sri Lanka Freedom Party (SLFP), and the comparatively right-wing and pro-capitalist United National Party (UNP).[182] Sri Lanka is essentially a multi-party democracy with many smaller Buddhist, socialist and Tamil nationalist political parties. As of July 2011, the number of registered political parties in the country is 67.[183] Of these, the Lanka Sama Samaja Party (LSSP), established in 1935, is the oldest.[184]
The UNP, established by D. S. Senanayake in 1946, was until recently the largest single political party.[185] It is the only political group which had representation in all parliaments since independence.[185] SLFP was founded by S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike in July 1951.[186] SLFP registered its first victory in 1956, defeating the ruling UNP in 1956 Parliamentary election.[186] Following the parliamentary election in July 1960, Sirimavo Bandaranaike became the prime minister and the world's first elected female head of government.[187]
G. G. Ponnambalam, the Tamil nationalist counterpart of S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike,[188] founded the All Ceylon Tamil Congress (ACTC) in 1944. Objecting to Ponnambalam's cooperation with D. S. Senanayake, a dissident group led by S.J.V. Chelvanayakam broke away in 1949 and formed the Illankai Tamil Arasu Kachchi (ITAK), also known as the Federal Party, becoming the main Tamil political party in Sri Lanka for next two decades.[189] The Federal Party advocated a more aggressive stance toward the Sinhalese.[190] With the constitutional reforms of 1972, the ACTC and ITAK created the Tamil United Front (later Tamil United Liberation Front). Following a period of turbulence as Tamil militants rose to power in the late 1970s, these Tamil political parties were succeeded in October 2001 by the Tamil National Alliance.[190][191] Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna, a Marxist–Leninist political party founded by Rohana Wijeweera in 1965, serves as a third force in the current political context.[192] It endorses leftist policies which are more radical than the traditionalist leftist politics of the LSSP and the Communist Party.[190] Founded in 1981, the Sri Lanka Muslim Congress is the largest Muslim political party in Sri Lanka.[193]
President Mahinda Rajapaksa lost the 2015 presidential elections, ending his ten-year presidency. The Rajapaksa family regain power in November 2019 presidential elections. The younger brother of Mahinda and former wartime defence chief Gotabaya Rajapaksa won the election, and he was sworn in as the new president of Sri Lanka.[194][195] Their firm grip of power consolidated in parliamentary elections in August 2020. The family's political party Sri Lanka People's Front (known by its Sinhala initials SLPP) got a landslide victory and a clear majority in the parliament. Five members of the Rajapaksa family won a seat in the parliament. Former president Mahinda Rajapaksa became the new prime minister.[196]
Administrative divisions
National symbols of Sri Lanka | |
---|---|
Flag | Lion Flag |
Emblem | Gold Lion Passant |
Anthem | "Sri Lanka Matha" |
Butterfly | Sri Lankan birdwing |
Animal | Grizzled giant squirrel |
Bird | Sri Lanka junglefowl |
Flower | Blue water lily |
Tree | Ceylon ironwood (nā) |
Sport | Volleyball |
Source: [197][198] | |
For administrative purposes, Sri Lanka is divided into nine provinces[199] and twenty-five districts.[200]
Provinces There have been provinces in Sri Lanka since the 19th century, but they had no legal status until 1987 when the 13th Amendment to the 1978 constitution established provincial councils after several decades of increasing demand for a decentralisation of the government.[201] Each provincial council is an autonomous body not under the authority of any ministry. Some of its functions had been undertaken by central government ministries, departments, corporations, and statutory authorities,[201] but authority over land and police is not as a rule given to provincial councils.[202][203] Between 1989 and 2006, the Northern and Eastern provinces were temporarily merged to form the North-East Province.[204][205] Prior to 1987, all administrative tasks for the provinces were handled by a district-based civil service which had been in place since colonial times. Now each province is administered by a directly elected provincial council:
|
Districts and local authorities Each district is administered under a district secretariat. The districts are further subdivided into 256 divisional secretariats, and these to approximately 14,008 Grama Niladhari divisions.[209] The districts are known in Sinhala as disa and in Tamil as māwaddam. Originally, a disa (usually rendered into English as Dissavony) was a duchy, notably Matale and Uva.
There are three other types of local authorities: municipal councils (18), urban councils (13) and pradeshiya sabha, also called pradesha sabhai (256).[210] Local authorities were originally based on feudal counties named korale and rata, and were formerly known as "D.R.O. divisions" after the divisional revenue officer.[211] Later the D.R.O.s became "assistant government agents," and the divisions were known as "A.G.A. divisions". These divisional secretariats are currently administered by a divisional secretary.
Foreign relations
Sri Lanka is a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM). While ensuring that it maintains its independence, Sri Lanka has cultivated relations with India.[212] Sri Lanka became a member of the United Nations in 1955. Today, it is also a member of the Commonwealth, the SAARC, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, the Asian Development Bank, and the Colombo Plan.
The United National Party has traditionally favoured links with the West, while the Sri Lanka Freedom Party has favoured links with the East.[212] Sri Lankan Finance Minister J. R. Jayewardene, together with then Australian Foreign Minister Sir Percy Spencer, proposed the Colombo Plan at the Commonwealth Foreign Minister's Conference held in Colombo in 1950.[213] At the San Francisco Peace Conference in 1951, while many countries were reluctant, Sri Lanka argued for a free Japan and refused to accept payment of reparations for World War II damage because it believed it would harm Japan's economy.[214] Sri Lanka-China relations started as soon as the People's Republic of China was formed in 1949. The two countries signed an important Rice-Rubber Pact in 1952.[215] Sri Lanka played a vital role at the Asian–African Conference in 1955, which was an important step in the crystallisation of the NAM.[216]
The Bandaranaike government of 1956 significantly changed the pro-western policies set by the previous UNP government. It recognised Cuba under Fidel Castro in 1959. Shortly afterward, Cuba's revolutionary Che Guevara paid a visit to Sri Lanka.[217] The Sirima-Shastri Pact of 1964[218] and Sirima-Gandhi Pact of 1974[219] were signed between Sri Lankan and Indian leaders in an attempt to solve the long-standing dispute over the status of plantation workers of Indian origin. In 1974, Kachchatheevu, a small island in Palk Strait, was formally ceded to Sri Lanka.[220] By this time, Sri Lanka was strongly involved in the NAM, and the fifth NAM summit was held in Colombo in 1976.[221] The relationship between Sri Lanka and India became tense under the government of J. R. Jayawardene.[137][222] As a result, India intervened in the Sri Lankan Civil War and subsequently deployed an Indian Peace Keeping Force in 1987.[223] In the present, Sri Lanka enjoys extensive relations with China,[224] Russia,[225] and Pakistan.[226]
Military
The Sri Lanka Armed Forces, comprising the Sri Lanka Army, the Sri Lanka Navy, and the Sri Lanka Air Force, come under the purview of the Ministry of Defence.[227] The total strength of the three services is around 346,000 personnel, with nearly 36,000 reserves.[228] Sri Lanka has not enforced military conscription.[229] Paramilitary units include the Special Task Force, the Civil Security Force, and the Sri Lanka Coast Guard.[230][231]
Since independence in 1948, the primary focus of the armed forces has been internal security, crushing three major insurgencies, two by Marxist militants of the JVP and a 26-year-long conflict with the LTTE. The armed forces have been in a continuous mobilised state for the last 30 years.[232][233] The Sri Lankan Armed Forces have engaged in United Nations peacekeeping operations since the early 1960s, contributing forces to permanent contingents deployed in several UN peacekeeping missions in Chad, Lebanon, and Haiti.[234]
Economía
According to the International Monetary Fund, Sri Lanka's GDP in terms of purchasing power parity is the second highest in the South Asian region in terms of per capita income. In the 19th and 20th centuries, Sri Lanka became a plantation economy famous for its production and export of cinnamon, rubber, and Ceylon tea, which remains a trademark national export.[235] The development of modern ports under British rule raised the strategic importance of the island as a centre of trade.[236] From 1948 to 1977, socialism strongly influenced the government's economic policies. Colonial plantations were dismantled, industries were nationalised, and a welfare state established. In 1977, the free market economy was introduced to the country incorporating privatisation, deregulation, and the promotion of private enterprise.[129]
While the production and export of tea, rubber, coffee, sugar, and other commodities remain important, industrialisation has increased the importance of food processing, textiles, telecommunications, and finance. The country's main economic sectors are tourism, tea export, clothing, rice production, and other agricultural products. In addition to these economic sectors, overseas employment, especially in the Middle East, contributes substantially in foreign exchange.[237]
As of 2010[update], the service sector makes up 60% of GDP, the industrial sector 28%, and the agriculture sector 12%.[237] The private sector accounts for 85% of the economy.[238] China, India and the United States are Sri Lanka's largest trading partners.[239] Economic disparities exist between the provinces with the Western Province contributing 45.1% of the GDP and the Southern Province and the Central Province contributing 10.7% and 10%, respectively.[240] With the end of the war, the Northern Province reported a record 22.9% GDP growth in 2010.[241]
The per capita income of Sri Lanka doubled from 2005 to 2011.[243] During the same period, poverty dropped from 15.2% to 7.6%, unemployment rate dropped from 7.2% to 4.9%, market capitalisation of the Colombo Stock Exchange quadrupled, and the budget deficit doubled.[237] Over 90% of the households in Sri Lanka are electrified; 87% of the population have access to safe drinking water; and 39% have access to pipe-borne water.[237] Income inequality has also dropped in recent years, indicated by a Gini coefficient of 0.36 in 2010.[244]
The 2011 Global Competitiveness Report, published by the World Economic Forum, described Sri Lanka's economy as transitioning from the factor-driven stage to the efficiency-driven stage and that it ranked 52nd in global competitiveness.[245] Also, out of the 142 countries surveyed, Sri Lanka ranked 45th in health and primary education, 32nd in business sophistication, 42nd in innovation, and 41st in goods market efficiency. In 2016, Sri Lanka ranked 5th in the World Giving Index, registering high levels of contentment and charitable behaviour in its society.[246] In 2010, The New York Times placed Sri Lanka at the top of its list of 31 places to visit.[247] S&P Dow Jones Indices classifies Sri Lanka as a frontier market as of 2018.[248] Sri Lanka ranks well above other South Asian countries in the Human Development Index (HDI) with an index of 0.750.
By 2016, the country's debt soared as it was developing its infrastructure to the point of near bankruptcy which required a bailout from the International Monetary Fund (IMF)[249] The IMF had agreed to provide a US$1.5 billion bailout loan in April 2016 after Sri Lanka provided a set of criteria intended to improve its economy. By the fourth quarter of 2016, the debt was estimated to be $64.9 billion. Additional debt had been incurred in the past by state-owned organisations and this was said to be at least $9.5 billion. Since early 2015, domestic debt increased by 12% and external debt by 25%.[250] In November 2016, the IMF reported that the initial disbursement was larger than US$150 million originally planned, a full US$162.6 million (SDR 119.894 million). The agency's evaluation for the first tranche was cautiously optimistic about the future. Under the program Sri Lankan government implemented a new Inland Revenue Act and an automatic fuel pricing formula which were noted by the IMF in its fourth review. In 2018 China agreed to bail out Sri Lanka with a loan of $1.25 billion to deal with foreign debt repayment spikes in 2019 to 2021.[251][252][253]
Demografía
Sri Lanka has roughly 21,670,000 people and an annual population growth rate of 1.14%. The birth rate is 17.6 births per 1,000 people, and the death rate is 6.2 deaths per 1,000 people.[237] Population density is highest in western Sri Lanka, especially in and around the capital. Sinhalese constitute the largest ethnic group in the country, with 74.8% of the total population.[254] Sri Lankan Tamils are the second major ethnic group in the island, with a percentage of 11.2%. Moors comprise 9.2%. There are also small ethnic groups such as the Burghers (of mixed European descent) and Malays from Southeast Asia. Moreover, there is a small population of Vedda people who are believed to be the original indigenous group to inhabit the island.[255]
Languages
Sinhala and Tamil are the two official languages.[256] The constitution defines English as the link language. English is widely used for education, scientific and commercial purposes. Members of the Burgher community speak variant forms of Portuguese Creole and Dutch with varying proficiency, while members of the Malay community speak a form of Creole Malay that is unique to the island.[257]
Religion
Buddhism is the largest and is considered as an "Official religion" of Sri Lanka under Chapter II, Article 9, "The Republic of Sri Lanka shall give to Buddhism the foremost place and accordingly it shall be the duty of the State to protect and foster the Buddha Sasana".[260][261] Buddhism is practiced by 70.2% of the Sri Lankan's population with most being predominantly from Theravada school of thought.[262] Most Buddhists are of the Sinhalese ethnic group with minority Tamils. Buddhism was introduced to Sri Lanka in the 2nd century BCE by venerable Mahinda Maurya.[262] A sapling of the Bodhi Tree under which the Buddha attained enlightenment was brought to Sri Lanka during the same time. The Pāli Canon (Thripitakaya), having previously been preserved as an oral tradition, was first committed to writing in Sri Lanka around 30 BCE.[263] Sri Lanka has the longest continuous history of Buddhism of any predominantly Buddhist nation.[262] During periods of decline, the Sri Lankan monastic lineage was revived through contact with Thailand and Burma.[263]
Hinduism was the dominant religion in Sri Lanka before the arrival of Buddhism in the 3rd century BCE. Buddhism was introduced into Sri Lanka by Mahinda, the son of the Emperor Ashoka, during the reign of King Devanampiya Tissa.[264] The Sinhalese embraced Buddhism and Tamils remain Hindus in Sri Lanka. However it was activity from across the Palk Strait that truly set the scene for Hinduism's survival in Sri Lanka. Shaivism (devotional worship of Lord Shiva) was the dominant branch practised by the Tamil peoples, thus most of the traditional Hindu temple architecture and philosophy of Sri Lanka drew heavily from this particular strand of Hinduism. Thirugnanasambanthar mentioned the names of a number of Sri Lankan Hindu temples in his works.[265]
Hinduism is the second most prevalent religion and predates Buddhism.[266] Islam is the third most prevalent religion in the country, having first been brought to the island by Arab traders over the course of many centuries, starting around the 7th century CE. Most Muslims are Sunni who follow the Shafi'i school.[267] Most followers today are believed to be descendants of those Arab traders and the local women they married.[268] Christianity reached the country through Western colonists in the early 16th century.[269] Around 7.4% of the Sri Lankan population are Christians, of whom 82% are Roman Catholics who trace their religious heritage directly to the Portuguese. Tamil Catholics attribute their religious heritage to St. Francis Xavier as well as Portuguese missionaries. The remaining Christians are evenly split between the Anglican Church of Ceylon and other Protestant denominations.[270] There is also a small population of Zoroastrian immigrants from India (Parsis) who settled in Ceylon during the period of British rule,[271] but this community has steadily dwindled in recent years.[272]
Religion plays a prominent role in the life and culture of Sri Lankans. The Buddhist majority observe Poya Days each month according to the Lunar calendar, and Hindus and Muslims also observe their own holidays. In a 2008 Gallup poll, Sri Lanka was ranked the third most religious country in the world, with 99% of Sri Lankans saying religion was an important part of their daily life.[273]
Health
Sri Lankans have a life expectancy of 77.9 years at birth, which is 10% higher than the world average.[237] The infant mortality rate stands at 8.5 per 1,000 births and the maternal mortality rate at 0.39 per 1,000 births, which is on par with figures from the developed countries. The universal "pro-poor"[275] health care system adopted by the country has contributed much towards these figures.[276] Sri Lanka ranks first among southeast Asian countries with respect to deaths by suicide, with 33 deaths per 100,000 persons. According to the Department of Census and Statistics, poverty, destructive pastimes, and inability to cope with stressful situations are the main causes behind the high suicide rates.[277]
Education
With a literacy rate of 92.5%,[237] Sri Lanka has one of the most literate populations amongst developing nations.[278] Its youth literacy rate stands at 98.8%,[279] computer literacy rate at 35%,[280] and primary school enrollment rate at over 99%.[281] An education system which dictates 9 years of compulsory schooling for every child is in place.
The free education system established in 1945[282] is a result of the initiative of C. W. W. Kannangara and A. Ratnayake.[283][284] It is one of the few countries in the world that provide universal free education from primary to tertiary stage.[285] Kannangara led the establishment of the Madhya Vidyalayas (central schools) in different parts of the country in order to provide education to Sri Lanka's rural children.[280] In 1942, a special education committee proposed extensive reforms to establish an efficient and quality education system for the people. However, in the 1980s changes to this system separated the administration of schools between the central government and the provincial government. Thus the elite national schools are controlled directly by the ministry of education and the provincial schools by the provincial government. Sri Lanka has approximately 9,675 government schools and 817 private schools and pirivenas.[237]
Sri Lanka has 15 public universities.[286] A lack of responsiveness of the education system to labour market requirements, disparities in access to quality education, lack of an effective linkage between secondary and tertiary education remain major challenges for the education sector.[287] A number of private, degree awarding institutions have emerged in recent times to fill in these gaps, yet the participation at tertiary level education remains at 5.1%.[288]
Science fiction author Arthur C. Clarke served as chancellor of Moratuwa University from 1979 to 2002.[289]
Transporte
Sri Lanka has an extensive road network for inland transportation. With more than 100,000 km (62,000 mi) of paved roads,[290] it has one of the highest road densities in the world (1.5 km or 0.93 mi of paved roads per every 1 km2 or 0.39 sq mi of land). The road network consists of 35 A-Grade highways and two controlled-access highways (E01 and E03).[291][292] A and B grade roads are national (arterial) highways administered by Road Development Authority.[293] C and D grade roads are provincial roads coming under the purview of the Provincial Road Development Authority of the respective province. The other roads are local roads falling under local government authorities.
The railway network, operated by the state-run National Railway operator Sri Lanka Railways, spans 1,447 kilometres (900 mi).[294] Sri Lanka also has three deep-water ports at Colombo, Galle, and Trincomalee, in addition to the newest port being built at Hambantota.
Derechos humanos y medios de comunicación
The Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation (formerly Radio Ceylon) is the oldest-running radio station in Asia,[295] established in 1923 by Edward Harper just three years after broadcasting began in Europe.[295] The station broadcasts services in Sinhala, Tamil, English and Hindi. Since the 1980s, many private radio stations have also been introduced. Broadcast television was introduced in 1979 when the Independent Television Network was launched. Initially, all television stations were state-controlled, but private television networks began broadcasting in 1992.[296]
As of 2010[update], 51 newspapers (30 Sinhala, 10 Tamil, 11 English) are published and 34 TV stations and 52 radio stations are in operation.[237] In recent years, freedom of the press in Sri Lanka has been alleged by media freedom groups to be amongst the poorest in democratic countries.[297] Alleged abuse of a newspaper editor by a senior government minister[298] achieved international notoriety because of the unsolved murder of the editor's predecessor, Lasantha Wickrematunge,[299] who had been a critic of the government and had presaged his own death in a posthumously published article.[300]
Officially, the constitution of Sri Lanka guarantees human rights as ratified by the United Nations. However, human rights has come under criticism by Amnesty International, Freedom from Torture, Human Rights Watch,[301] and the United States Department of State.[302] British colonial rulers,[303] the LTTE, and the government of Sri Lanka have been accused of violating human rights. A report by an advisory panel to the UN secretary-general accused both the LTTE and the Sri Lankan government of war crimes during final stages of the civil war.[304][305] Corruption remains a problem in Sri Lanka, and there is little protection for those who stand up against corruption.[306] The 135-year-old Article 365 of the Sri Lankan Penal Code criminalises gay sex and provides for a penalty of up to ten years in prison.[307]
The UN Human Rights Council has documented over 12,000 named individuals who have disappeared after detention by security forces in Sri Lanka, the second highest figure in the world since the Working Group came into being in 1980.[308] The Sri Lankan government confirmed that 6,445 of these died. Allegations of human rights abuses have not ended with the close of the ethnic conflict.[309]
UN Human Rights Commissioner Navanethem Pillay visited Sri Lanka in May 2013. After her visit, she said: "The war may have ended [in Sri Lanka], but in the meantime democracy has been undermined and the rule of law eroded." Pillay spoke about the military's increasing involvement in civilian life and reports of military land grabbing. She also said that, while in Sri Lanka, she had been allowed to go wherever she wanted, but that Sri Lankans who came to meet her were harassed and intimidated by security forces.[310][311]
In 2012, the UK charity Freedom from Torture reported that it had received 233 referrals of torture survivors from Sri Lanka for clinical treatment or other services provided by the charity. In the same year, the group published Out of the Silence, which documents evidence of torture in Sri Lanka and demonstrates that the practice has continued long after the end of the civil war in 2009.[312] On 29 July 2020, Human Rights Watch said that the Sri Lanka government has targeted lawyers, human rights defenders, and journalists to suppress criticism against the government.[313]
Cultura
The culture of Sri Lanka is influenced primarily by Buddhism and Hinduism.[314] Sri Lanka is the home to two main traditional cultures: the Sinhalese (centred in Kandy and Anuradhapura) and the Tamil (centred in Jaffna). Tamils co-existed with the Sinhalese people since then, and the early mixing rendered the two ethnic groups almost physically indistinct.[315] Ancient Sri Lanka is marked for its genius in hydraulic engineering and architecture. The British colonial culture has also influenced the locals. The rich cultural traditions shared by all Sri Lankan cultures is the basis of the country's long life expectancy, advanced health standards and high literacy rate.[316]
Food and festivals
Dishes include rice and curry, pittu, kiribath, wholemeal roti, string hoppers, wattalapam (a rich pudding of Malay origin made with coconut milk, jaggery, cashews, eggs, and spices including cinnamon and nutmeg), kottu, and appam.[317] Jackfruit may sometimes replace rice. Traditionally food is served on a plantain leaf or lotus leaf. Middle Eastern influences and practices are found in traditional Moor dishes, while Dutch and Portuguese influences are found with the island's Burgher community preserving their culture through traditional dishes such as lamprais (rice cooked in stock and baked in a banana leaf), breudher (Dutch holiday biscuit), and bolo fiado (Portuguese-style layer cake).
In April, Sri Lankans celebrate the Buddhist and Hindu new year festivals.[318] Esala Perahera is a symbolic Buddhist festival consisting of dances and decorated elephants held in Kandy in July and August.[319] Fire dances, whip dances, Kandian dances and various other cultural dances are integral parts of the festival. Christians celebrate Christmas on 25 December to celebrate the birth of Jesus Christ and Easter to celebrate the resurrection of Jesus. Tamils celebrate Thai Pongal and Maha Shivaratri, and Muslims celebrate Hajj and Ramadan.
Visual, literary and performing arts
The movie Kadawunu Poronduwa (The Broken Promise), produced by S. M. Nayagam of Chitra Kala Movietone, heralded the coming of Sri Lankan cinema in 1947. Ranmuthu Duwa (Island of Treasures) marked the transition cinema from black-and-white to colour. In recent years, movies have featured subjects such as family melodrama, social transformation and the years of conflict between the military and the LTTE.[320] The Sri Lankan cinematic style is similar to Bollywood movies. In 1979, movie attendance rose to an all-time high, but has been in steady decline since then.[321]
An influential filmmaker is Lester James Peiris, who has directed a number of movies which led to global acclaim, including Rekava (Line of Destiny, 1956), Gamperaliya (The Changing Village, 1964), Nidhanaya (The Treasure, 1970) and Golu Hadawatha (Cold Heart, 1968).[322] Sri Lankan-Canadian poet Rienzi Crusz, is the subject of a documentary on his life in Sri Lanka. His work is published in Sinhala and English. Naturalised Canadian Michael Ondaatje is well known for his English-language novels and three films.
The earliest music in Sri Lanka came from theatrical performances such as Kolam, Sokari and Nadagam.[323] Traditional music instruments such as Béra, Thammátama, Daŭla and Răbān were performed at these dramas. The first music album, Nurthi, recorded in 1903, was released through Radio Ceylon. Songwriters like Mahagama Sekara and Ananda Samarakoon and musicians such as W. D. Amaradeva, Victor Ratnayake, Nanda Malini and Clarence Wijewardene have contributed much towards the progression of Sri Lankan music.[324] Baila originated among Kaffirs or the Afro-Sinhalese community.[325]
There are three main styles of Sri Lankan classical dance. They are, the Kandyan dances, low country dances and Sabaragamuwa dances. Of these, the Kandyan style is most prominent. It is a sophisticated form of dance[326] that consists of five sub-categories: Ves dance, Naiyandi dance, Udekki dance, Pantheru dance and 18 Vannam.[327] An elaborate headdress is worn by the male dancers, and a drum called Geta Béraya is used to assist the dancers to keep on rhythm.[328]
The history of Sri Lankan painting and sculpture can be traced as far back as to the 2nd or 3rd century BCE.[329] The earliest mention about the art of painting on Mahāvaṃsa, is to the drawing of a palace on cloth using cinnabar in the 2nd century BCE. The chronicles have a description of various paintings in relic-chambers of Buddhist stupas and in monastic residence.
Theatre came to the country when a Parsi theatre company from Mumbai introduced Nurti, a blend of European and Indian theatrical conventions to the Colombo audience in the 19th century.[327] The golden age of Sri Lankan drama and theatre began with the staging of Maname, a play written by Ediriweera Sarachchandra in 1956.[330] It was followed by a series of popular dramas like Sinhabāhu, Pabāvatī, Mahāsāra, Muudu Puththu and Subha saha Yasa.
Sri Lankan literature spans at least two millennia and is heir to the Aryan literary tradition as embodied in the hymns of the Rigveda.[331] The Pāli Canon, the standard collection of scriptures in the Theravada Buddhist tradition, was written down in Sri Lanka during the Fourth Buddhist council, at the Alulena cave temple, Kegalle, as early as 29 BCE.[332] Chronicles such as the Mahāvaṃsa, written in the 6th century, provide vivid descriptions of Sri Lankan dynasties. According to the German philosopher Wilhelm Geiger, the chronicles are based on Sinhala Atthakatha (commentary).[331] The oldest surviving prose work is the Dhampiya-Atuva-Getapadaya, compiled in the 9th century CE.[331] The greatest literary feats of medieval Sri Lanka include Sandesha Kāvya (poetic messages) such as Girā Sandeshaya (parrot message), Hansa Sandeshaya (swan message) and Salalihini Sandeshaya (myna message). Poetry including Kavsilumina, Kavya-Sekharaya (Diadem of Poetry) and proses such as Saddharma-Ratnāvaliya, Amāvatura (Flood of Nectar) and Pujāvaliya are also notable works of this period, which is considered to be the golden age of Sri Lankan literature.[331] The first modern-day novel, Meena by Simon de Silva appeared in 1905[327] and was followed by several revolutionary literary works. Martin Wickramasinghe, the author of Madol Doova is considered the iconic figure of Sri Lankan literature.[333]
Sport
While the national sport is volleyball, by far the most popular sport in the country is cricket.[334] Rugby union also enjoys extensive popularity,[335] as do association football, netball and tennis. Aquatic sports such as boating, surfing, swimming, kitesurfing[336] and scuba diving attract many Sri Lankans and foreign tourists. There are two styles of martial arts native to Sri Lanka: Cheena di and Angampora.[337]
The Sri Lanka national cricket team achieved considerable success beginning in the 1990s, rising from underdog status to winning the 1996 Cricket World Cup.[338] They also won the 2014 ICC World Twenty20 played in Bangladesh, beating India in the final. In addition, Sri Lanka became the runners-up of the Cricket World Cup in 2007[339] and 2011,[340] and of the ICC World Twenty20 in 2009 and 2012.[341] Former Sri Lankan off-spinner Muttiah Muralitharan has been rated as the greatest test match bowler ever by Wisden Cricketers' Almanack,[342] and four Sri Lankan cricketers ranked 2nd (Sangakkara), 4th (Jayasuriya), 5th (Jayawardene) and 11th (Dilshan) highest ODI run scorers of all time, which is the second best by a team. Sri Lanka has won the Asia Cup in 1986,[343] 1997,[344] 2004,[345] 2008[346] and 2014.[347] Sri Lanka once held highest team score in all three formats of cricket.[348] The country co-hosted the Cricket World Cup in 1996 and 2011, and hosted the 2012 ICC World Twenty20.
Sri Lankans have won two medals at Olympic Games: one silver, by Duncan White at 1948 London Olympics for men's 400 metres hurdles;[349] and one silver by Susanthika Jayasinghe at 2000 Sydney Olympics for women's 200 metres.[350] In 1973, Muhammad Lafir won the World Billiards Championship, the highest feat by a Sri Lankan in a Cue sport.[351] Sri Lanka has also won the Carrom World Championship titles twice in 2012, 2016[352] and 2018, men's team becoming champions and women's team won second place.
Ver también
- Index of Sri Lanka-related articles
- Outline of Sri Lanka
- List of cities in Sri Lanka
Referencias
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'The original mandate derives from Commission on Human Rights resolution 20 (XXXVI) of 29 February 1980','Since its establishment, the Working Group has transmitted 12,460 cases to the Government; of those, 40 cases have been clarified on the basis of information provided by the source, 6,535 cases have been clarified on the basis of information provided by the Government, 214 cases were found to be duplications and were therefore deleted, and 5,671 remain outstanding.'
- ^ Disappearances in Sri Lanka (14 January 2012). "Murky business: People are disappearing – and the government has been accused". The Economist. Retrieved 24 November 2012.
- ^ "UN Human Rights Commissioner: 'democracy has been undermined' in Sri Lanka". GlobalPost. 31 August 2013. Retrieved 10 September 2013.
- ^ "UN's Navi Pillay attacks Sri Lanka human rights record". BBC News. 31 August 2013. Retrieved 10 September 2013.
- ^ Sri Lanka: Out of the Silence. freedomfromtorture.org
- ^ "Sri Lanka: Human Rights Under Attack". Human Rights Watch. Retrieved 29 July 2020.
- ^ "Pre-Colonial Sri Lankan History". panix.com.
- ^ Nubin 2002, p. 97
- ^ Nubin 2002, p. 94
- ^ Jayakody, Padmini (2008). Simply Sri Lankan. Australia: Lulu.com. p. 3. ISBN 978-1-4092-1942-2.
- ^ Wickremeratne, Swarna (2006). Buddha in Sri Lanka: remembered yesterdays. SUNY Press. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-7914-6881-4.
- ^ Dassanayake, M. B. (1970). The Kandy Esala perahera: Asia's most spectacular pageant. Colombo: Lake House Bookshop. p. 7.
- ^ Dissanayake, Wimal (2006). Contemporary Asian cinema: popular culture in a global frame, Chapter 8. Berg. pp. 108–119. ISBN 978-1-84520-237-8.
- ^ Lakshman, W. D. (2000). Sri Lanka's development since independence. New York: Nova Publishers. p. 253. ISBN 978-1-56072-784-2.
- ^ "Dr. Lester James Peiris, Father of Sri Lankan Cinema, celebrates 90th Birthday". Asian Tribune. Archived from the original on 9 March 2016. Retrieved 21 January 2021.
- ^ Brandon, James R. (1997). The Cambridge guide to Asian theatre. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 226–229. ISBN 978-0-521-58822-5.
- ^ McConnachie, James (2000). World music: the rough guide, Volume 2. Rough Guides. p. 230. ISBN 978-1-85828-636-5.
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- ^ "Kandyan dance". Encyclopædia Britannica.
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- ^ "History of painting and sculpture in Sri Lanka". lankalibrary.com. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 20 September 2011.
- ^ "The Sinhala Theatre of Sri Lanka: A Form of Political Discourse". artsrilanka.org.
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- Nubin, Walter (2002). Sri Lanka: Current issues and historical background. Nova Publishers. ISBN 978-1-59033-573-4.
- Paw, Maung. "Theri Sanghamitta and the Bodhi Tree" (PDF). usamyanmar.net.
- De Silva, K. M. (1981). A history of Sri Lanka. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-04320-6.
enlaces externos
Government
- Official Sri Lankan Government Web Portal, a gateway to government sites.
- Official website of the Parliament of Sri Lanka.
- Official Government News Portal
- Official website of the President of Sri Lanka.
- Official website of the Prime Minister of Sri Lanka / Prime Minister's Office.
- Official website of the Office of the Cabinet of Ministers of Sri Lanka.
- Official website of the Supreme Court of Sri Lanka.
Overviews and data
- Sri Lanka. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
- Official site of the Department of Census and Statistics.
- Annual Report 2010 from the Ministry of Finance and Planning.
- Sri Lanka from UCB Libraries GovPubs.
- Sri Lanka at Curlie
- Sri Lanka profile from the BBC News.
- Sri Lanka in the Encyclopædia Britannica.
- Introducing Sri Lanka Overview of the country from Lonely Planet.
- Key Development Forecasts for Sri Lanka from International Futures.
History
- Mahavamsa an ancient Sri Lankan chronicle written in the 6th century.
- Sketches of the Natural History of Ceylon by Sir James Emerson Tennent, 1861.
Maps
Wikimedia Atlas of Sri Lanka
- Geographic data related to Sri Lanka at OpenStreetMap
- Sri Lanka Map in Google Maps.
- Old maps of Sri Lanka, Eran Laor Cartographic Collection, The National Library of Israel
Trade
- World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Sri Lanka