El entrenamiento de fuerza o entrenamiento de resistencia implica la realización de ejercicios físicos diseñados para mejorar la fuerza y la resistencia. A menudo se asocia con el uso de pesas . También puede incorporar una variedad de técnicas de entrenamiento como calistenia , isométrica y pliometría . [1]
Cuando se realiza correctamente, el entrenamiento de fuerza puede proporcionar beneficios funcionales significativos y una mejora en la salud y el bienestar en general, incluido un aumento de la fuerza y dureza de los huesos , músculos , tendones y ligamentos , mejor función de las articulaciones , menor potencial de lesiones, [2] aumento de la densidad ósea , aumento del metabolismo , aumento de la forma física [3] [4] y mejora de la función cardíaca . [5] El entrenamiento comúnmente usa la técnica de aumentar progresivamente la producción de fuerza del músculo a través de incrementos de peso incrementales y usa una variedad de ejercicios y tipos de equipos para apuntar a grupos musculares específicos. El entrenamiento de fuerza es principalmente una actividad anaeróbica , aunque algunos defensores lo han adaptado para proporcionar los beneficios del ejercicio aeróbico a través del entrenamiento en circuito . [6]
El entrenamiento de fuerza se asocia típicamente con la producción de lactato, que es un factor limitante del rendimiento del ejercicio. El ejercicio de resistencia regular conduce a adaptaciones en el músculo esquelético que pueden evitar que los niveles de lactato aumenten durante el entrenamiento de fuerza. Esto está mediado por la activación de PGC-1 alfa que altera la composición del complejo de isoenzimas LDH (lactato deshidrogenasa) y disminuye la actividad de la enzima generadora de lactato LDHA, mientras aumenta la actividad de la enzima metabolizadora de lactato LDHB. [7]
Deportes en los que el entrenamiento de fuerza es central son el culturismo , levantamiento de pesas , powerlifting , hombre fuerte , Juegos de la montaña , lanzamiento de peso , lanzamiento de disco y lanzamiento de jabalina . Muchos otros deportes usan el entrenamiento de fuerza como parte de su régimen de entrenamiento, en particular tenis , fútbol americano , lucha libre , pista y campo , remo , lacrosse , baloncesto , béisbol , pole dance , hockey , lucha libre profesional , rugby union , rugby league y soccer . El entrenamiento de fuerza para otros deportes y actividades físicas se está volviendo cada vez más popular.
Usos
Los beneficios del entrenamiento de fuerza incluyen mayor fuerza muscular, mejor tono y apariencia muscular, mayor resistencia, salud cardiovascular y mayor densidad ósea.
Mayor atractivo físico
Muchas personas inician el entrenamiento de fuerza para mejorar su atractivo físico . Existe evidencia de que un tipo de cuerpo que consiste en hombros anchos y una cintura estrecha, alcanzable a través del entrenamiento de fuerza, es el atributo masculino más atractivo físicamente según las mujeres que participan en la investigación. [8] La mayoría de los hombres pueden desarrollar músculos sustanciales; la mayoría de las mujeres carecen de testosterona para hacerlo, pero pueden desarrollar un físico firme y "tonificado" (ver más abajo), y pueden aumentar su fuerza en la misma proporción que la alcanzada por los hombres (pero generalmente desde un punto de partida significativamente más bajo) . La estructura genética de un individuo dicta la respuesta a los estímulos del entrenamiento con pesas en gran medida. El entrenamiento no puede exceder las cualidades intrínsecas determinadas genéticamente de un músculo, aunque la expresión polimórfica ocurre, por ejemplo, cadenas pesadas de miosina . [9]
Los estudios también muestran que las personas pueden notar la fuerza de los hombres basándose en fotos de sus cuerpos y rostros, y que la apariencia física indica señales de fortalezas que a menudo están relacionadas con la formidabilidad física de un hombre y, por lo tanto, su atractivo. [10] Esto está alineado con estudios que revelan que aquellos que se someten a entrenamiento de fuerza logran más autoestima y catexis corporal en comparación con los individuos que no se someten a entrenamiento o ejercicio. [11] Además, las personas que se someten a un entrenamiento de fuerza tienden a tener una imagen corporal más favorable incluso que aquellas que también realizan actividades físicas habituales , como caminar y correr . [12] También se revela cada vez más que más mujeres están insatisfechas con su cuerpo hoy en día que las encuestadas en 1984 y, a menudo, recurren al ejercicio como el entrenamiento de fuerza para mejorar la forma de su cuerpo . [13]
Los entrenamientos elevan el metabolismo hasta 14 horas después de 45 minutos de ejercicio vigoroso. [14] [15]
Aumento de la salud física general.
El entrenamiento de fuerza también proporciona beneficios funcionales. Los músculos más fuertes mejoran la postura, brindan un mejor soporte para las articulaciones y reducen el riesgo de lesiones por las actividades diarias. Las personas mayores que inician el entrenamiento con pesas pueden prevenir parte de la pérdida de tejido muscular que normalmente acompaña al envejecimiento , e incluso recuperar algo de fuerza funcional, y al hacerlo se vuelven menos frágiles. [16] Es posible que puedan evitar algunos tipos de discapacidad física . El ejercicio con pesas también ayuda a prevenir la osteoporosis y a mejorar la fortaleza de los huesos en las personas con osteoporosis. [17] Los beneficios del entrenamiento con pesas para las personas mayores han sido confirmados por estudios de personas que comenzaron a practicarlo incluso a los 80 y 90 años.
Aunque el entrenamiento de fuerza puede estimular el sistema cardiovascular , muchos fisiólogos del ejercicio , basándose en su observación del consumo máximo de oxígeno , argumentan que el entrenamiento aeróbico es un mejor estímulo cardiovascular. La monitorización del catéter central durante el entrenamiento de resistencia revela un aumento del gasto cardíaco , lo que sugiere que el entrenamiento de fuerza muestra potencial para el ejercicio cardiovascular . Sin embargo, un metanálisis de 2007 encontró que, aunque el entrenamiento aeróbico es una terapia eficaz para los pacientes con insuficiencia cardíaca, el entrenamiento aeróbico y de fuerza combinado es ineficaz. [18]
El entrenamiento de fuerza puede ser importante para la salud metabólica y cardiovascular. La evidencia reciente sugiere que el entrenamiento de resistencia puede reducir el riesgo de enfermedades metabólicas y cardiovasculares. Las personas con sobrepeso con un estado físico de alta resistencia exhiben perfiles de riesgo metabólico / cardiovascular similares a los individuos en forma de peso normal en lugar de los individuos no aptos con sobrepeso. [19]
Para rehabilitación o para abordar una discapacidad
Para muchas personas en rehabilitación o con una discapacidad adquirida , como después de un accidente cerebrovascular o una cirugía ortopédica, el entrenamiento de fuerza para los músculos débiles es un factor clave para optimizar la recuperación. [20] Para las personas con tal condición de salud, es probable que su entrenamiento de fuerza deba ser diseñado por un profesional de la salud apropiado, como un fisioterapeuta o un terapeuta ocupacional .
Mayor rendimiento deportivo
Los músculos más fuertes mejoran el rendimiento en una variedad de deportes. Muchos competidores utilizan rutinas de entrenamiento específicas para cada deporte. Estos a menudo especifican que la velocidad de contracción muscular durante el entrenamiento con pesas debe ser la misma que la del deporte en particular. [21]
Por el placer de la actividad
Un efecto secundario del ejercicio intenso es el aumento de los niveles de dopamina , serotonina y norepinefrina , que pueden ayudar a mejorar el estado de ánimo y contrarrestar los sentimientos de depresión (no se encontró que la dopamina y la serotonina aumentaran con el entrenamiento de resistencia). [22] [23]
La investigación en desarrollo ha demostrado que muchos de los beneficios del ejercicio están mediados por el papel del músculo esquelético como órgano endocrino. Es decir, los músculos que se contraen liberan múltiples sustancias conocidas como mioquinas que promueven el crecimiento de tejido nuevo, la reparación de tejidos y diversas funciones antiinflamatorias, que a su vez reducen el riesgo de desarrollar diversas enfermedades inflamatorias. [24]
Principios y métodos de formación
Los principios básicos del entrenamiento de fuerza implican una manipulación del número de repeticiones, series, tempo, ejercicios y fuerza para provocar los cambios deseados en la fuerza, la resistencia o el tamaño mediante la sobrecarga de un grupo de músculos. Las combinaciones específicas de repeticiones, series, ejercicios, resistencia y fuerza dependen del propósito de la persona que realiza el ejercicio: para ganar tamaño y fuerza, se deben realizar varias series (4+) con menos repeticiones utilizando más fuerza. [25] Se puede adoptar un amplio espectro de regímenes para lograr diferentes resultados, pero la fórmula clásica recomendada por el Colegio Americano de Medicina Deportiva dice lo siguiente:
- 8 a 12 repeticiones de un ejercicio de entrenamiento de resistencia para cada grupo de músculos principal a una intensidad del 40% al 80% de una repetición máxima (RM) dependiendo del nivel de entrenamiento del participante.
- Se recomiendan dos o tres minutos de descanso entre series de ejercicios para permitir una recuperación adecuada.
- Se recomiendan de dos a cuatro series para cada grupo de músculos [26]
Por lo general, no utilizar una buena forma durante una serie de entrenamiento puede resultar en lesiones o la imposibilidad de cumplir con los objetivos del entrenamiento. Cuando el grupo muscular deseado no se desafía lo suficiente, nunca se alcanza el umbral de sobrecarga y el músculo no gana fuerza. Hay casos en los que hacer trampa es beneficioso, como es el caso en el que los grupos más débiles se convierten en el eslabón débil de la cadena y, como resultado, los músculos objetivo nunca se ejercitan por completo.
Terminología
El entrenamiento de fuerza tiene una variedad de términos que se utilizan para describir los parámetros del entrenamiento de fuerza:
- Ejercicio : diferentes movimientos que implican la rotación de articulaciones en patrones específicos para desafiar los músculos de diferentes maneras.
- Forma : cada ejercicio tiene una forma específica, una topografía de movimiento diseñada para maximizar la seguridad y las ganancias de fuerza muscular.
- Rep: abreviatura de repetición, una repetición es un ciclo único de levantar y bajar un peso de manera controlada, moviéndose a través de la forma del ejercicio.
- Serie : una serie consta de varias repeticiones realizadas una tras otra sin interrupción entre ellas, con el número de repeticiones por serie y series por ejercicio según el objetivo del individuo. El número de repeticiones que uno puede realizar con un cierto peso se llama Rep Maximum (RM). Por ejemplo, si uno pudiera realizar diez repeticiones a 75 libras, entonces ese peso sería su 10RM. Por lo tanto, 1RM es el peso máximo que una persona puede levantar en un ejercicio determinado, es decir, un peso que solo puede levantar una vez sin descanso.
- Tempo: la velocidad con la que se realiza un ejercicio; el ritmo de un movimiento tiene implicaciones para el peso que se puede mover y los efectos sobre el músculo.
Realización de los objetivos de entrenamiento
Para desarrollar la resistencia, los aumentos graduales de volumen y las disminuciones graduales de intensidad es el programa más eficaz. [27] [28] Las series de trece a veinte repeticiones desarrollan resistencia anaeróbica, con algunos aumentos en el tamaño de los músculos y un impacto limitado en la fuerza. [29]
Se ha demostrado que para los principiantes, el entrenamiento de series múltiples ofrece beneficios mínimos sobre el entrenamiento de una sola serie con respecto a la ganancia de fuerza o el aumento de masa muscular, pero para el atleta experimentado se requieren sistemas de series múltiples para un progreso óptimo. [30] [29] [31] [32] Sin embargo, un estudio muestra que para los músculos de las piernas, tres series son más efectivas que una serie. [33]
Los entrenadores de peso principiantes están en el proceso de entrenar los aspectos neurológicos de la fuerza, la capacidad del cerebro para generar una tasa de potenciales de acción neuronales que producirán una contracción muscular cercana al máximo del potencial del músculo.
Variable | Objetivo de entrenamiento | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Fuerza | Energía | Hipertrofia | Resistencia | |
Carga (% de 1RM ) | 90–80 | 60–45 | 80–60 | 60–40 |
Repeticiones por serie | 1–5 | 1–5 | 6-12 | 13–60 |
Series por ejercicio | 4-7 | 3-5 | 4-8 | 2-4 |
Descanso entre series (minutos) | 2-6 | 2-6 | 2-3 | 1-2 |
Duración (segundos por serie) | 5-10 | 4-8 | 20–60 | 80-150 |
Velocidad por repetición (% del máximo) | 60-100 | 90-100 | 60–90 | 60–80 |
Sesiones de entrenamiento por semana | 3-6 | 3-6 | 5-7 | 8-14 |
Cuadro reproducido de Siff, 2003 [34] |
Los pesos para cada ejercicio deben elegirse de modo que se pueda lograr el número deseado de repeticiones.
Sobrecarga progresiva
El método básico de entrenamiento con pesas utiliza el principio de sobrecarga progresiva , en el que los músculos se sobrecargan al intentar levantar al menos tanto peso como son capaces. Responden haciéndose más grandes y fuertes. [35] Este procedimiento se repite con pesos progresivamente más pesados a medida que el practicante gana fuerza y resistencia.
Sin embargo, realizar ejercicios en el límite absoluto de la fuerza de uno (conocido como levantamientos de una repetición máxima ) se considera demasiado arriesgado para todos, excepto para los practicantes más experimentados. Además, la mayoría de las personas desean desarrollar una combinación de fuerza, resistencia y tamaño muscular. Las series de una repetición no se adaptan bien a estos objetivos. Por lo tanto, los practicantes levantan pesos más livianos (submáximos), con más repeticiones, para fatigar el músculo y todas las fibras dentro de ese músculo como lo requiere el principio de sobrecarga progresiva.
Comúnmente, cada ejercicio se continúa hasta el punto de una falla muscular momentánea. Contrariamente a la creencia generalizada, este no es el punto en el que el individuo piensa que no puede completar más repeticiones, sino más bien la primera repetición que falla debido a una fuerza muscular inadecuada. El entrenamiento hasta el fracaso es un tema controvertido y algunos abogan por el entrenamiento hasta el fracaso en todas las series, mientras que otros creen que esto conducirá a un sobreentrenamiento y sugieren entrenar hasta el fracaso solo en la última serie de un ejercicio. [36] Algunos practicantes recomiendan terminar una serie de repeticiones justo antes de alcanzar un máximo personal en un momento dado. La adrenalina y otras hormonas pueden promover una intensidad adicional al estimular al cuerpo para que levante peso adicional (así como las estimulaciones neuromusculares que ocurren cuando está en modo de "lucha o huida", ya que el cuerpo activa más fibras musculares), por lo que " mentalizado "antes de un entrenamiento puede aumentar el peso máximo levantado.
El entrenamiento con pesas puede ser una forma muy efectiva de entrenamiento de fuerza porque se pueden elegir ejercicios y ajustar los pesos con precisión para agotar de manera segura cada grupo muscular individual después de la cantidad específica de series y repeticiones que se ha encontrado que son las más efectivas para el individuo. Otros ejercicios de entrenamiento de fuerza carecen de la flexibilidad y precisión que ofrecen las pesas.
Entrenamiento dividido
El entrenamiento dividido implica trabajar no más de tres grupos de músculos o partes del cuerpo por día, en su lugar, distribuir el entrenamiento de partes específicas del cuerpo a lo largo de un ciclo de entrenamiento de varios días. Es comúnmente utilizado por practicantes más avanzados debido a la logística involucrada en el entrenamiento máximo de todos los grupos musculares. Por lo general, no se considera posible entrenar todos los músculos del cuerpo individualmente en todo su rango de movimiento en un solo día debido a limitaciones de calorías y tiempo. El entrenamiento dividido implica agotar por completo los grupos de músculos individuales durante un entrenamiento, y luego dejar varios días para que el músculo se recupere por completo. Los músculos se trabajan aproximadamente dos veces por semana y se les permite aproximadamente 72 horas para recuperarse. La recuperación de ciertos grupos musculares generalmente se logra en días mientras se entrena a otros grupos, es decir, una semana de 7 días puede consistir en un practicante que entrena el trapecio, los hombros laterales y la parte superior de los hombros hasta el agotamiento en un día, al día siguiente los brazos hasta el agotamiento, el día después de eso la parte trasera, los hombros delanteros y la espalda, al día siguiente el pecho. De esta forma todos los grupos musculares mencionados se les permite la recuperación necesaria. [37]
Quizás la forma más común de división de entrenamiento en las últimas décadas es la división de partes del cuerpo (a veces conocida como " división de culturista " o " división de hermanos "), que se hizo popular debido a su uso en el culturismo profesional y se analiza en varios fuentes dedicadas al entrenamiento físico, como Bodybuilding.com , T-Nation y Muscle & Strength. [38] [39] [40] Este tipo de división está estructurada de modo que el cuerpo se divide en lo que se consideran los principales grupos de músculos, es decir, pecho, espalda, piernas, hombros y brazos (bíceps y tríceps), cada parte luego se entrena hasta el agotamiento una vez a la semana en un día dedicado. Opcionalmente, los bíceps se pueden entrenar junto con la espalda, debido a que ambos están involucrados en los movimientos de tracción; a la inversa, los tríceps se pueden entrenar junto con el pecho de los hombros, ya que todos estos músculos están involucrados en los movimientos de empuje. El trabajo abdominal se puede distribuir en varias sesiones o concentrarse en un solo día.
Despite the popularity of body-part splits, recent evidence suggests that multiple training sessions for the same muscle group over the course of a week are a more effective training strategy. One recent meta-analysis of experimental trials on resistance training found out that, when total training volume is equated, "frequencies of training twice a week promote superior hypertrophic outcomes to once a week".[41]
Intensity, volume, and frequency
Three important variables of strength training are intensity, volume, and frequency. Intensity refers to the amount of work required to achieve the activity and is proportional to the mass of the weights being lifted. Volume refers to the number of muscles worked, exercises, sets, and reps during a single session. Frequency refers to how many training sessions are performed per week.
These variables are important because they are all mutually conflicting, as the muscle only has so much strength and endurance, and takes time to recover due to microtrauma. Increasing one by any significant amount necessitates the decrease of the other two, e.g. increasing weight means a reduction of reps, and will require more recovery time and therefore fewer workouts per week. Trying to push too much intensity, volume and frequency will result in overtraining, and eventually lead to injury and other health issues such as chronic soreness and general lethargy, illness or even acute trauma such as avulsion fractures. A high-medium-low formula can be used to avoid overtraining, with either intensity, volume, or frequency being high, one of the others being medium, and the other being low. One example of this training strategy can be found in the following chart:
Type | High | Med | Low |
---|---|---|---|
Intensity (% of 1RM) | 80–100% | 40–70% | 0–40% |
Volume (per muscle) | 3+ exercises | 2 exercises | 1 exercises |
Sets | 4+ sets | 2–3 sets | 1 set |
Reps | 20+ reps | 8–15 reps | 1–6 reps |
Session frequency | 4+ p/w | 2–3 p/w | 1 p/w |
A common training strategy is to set the volume and frequency the same each week (e.g. training 3 times per week, with 2 sets of 12 reps each workout), and steadily increase the intensity (weight) on a weekly basis. However, to maximize progress to specific goals, individual programs may require different manipulations, such as decreasing the weight, and increase volume or frequency.[42]
Making program alterations on a daily basis (daily undulating periodization) seems to be more efficient in eliciting strength gains than doing so every 4 weeks (linear periodization),[43] but for beginners there are no differences between different periodization models.[44]
Periodization
There are many complicated definitions for periodization, but the term simply means the division of the overall training program into periods which accomplish different goals.
Periodization is the modulating of volume, intensity, and frequency over time, to both stimulate gains and allow recovery.
In some programs for example; volume is decreased during a training cycle while intensity is increased. In this template, a lifter would begin a training cycle with a higher rep range than they will finish with.
For this example, the lifter has a 1 rep max of 225 lb:
Week | Set 1 | Set 2 | Set 3 | Set 4 | Set 5 | Volume lb | % exertion (last set) | % of 1 rep max (last set) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 125 lb × 8 reps | 130 lb × 8 reps | 135 lb × 8 reps | 140 lb × 8 reps | 145 lb × 8 reps | 5,400 | 78% | 64% |
2 | 135 lb × 7 reps | 140 lb × 7 reps | 145 lb × 7 reps | 150 lb × 7 reps | 155 lb × 7 reps | 5,075 | 81% | 69% |
3 | 145 lb × 6 reps | 150 lb × 6 reps | 155 lb × 6 reps | 160 lb × 6 reps | 165 lb × 6 reps | 4,650 | 84% | 73% |
4 | 155 lb × 5 reps | 160 lb × 5 reps | 165 lb × 5 reps | 170 lb × 5 reps | 175 lb × 5 reps | 4,125 | 87% | 78% |
5 | 165 lb × 4 reps | 170 lb × 4 reps | 175 lb × 4 reps | 180 lb × 4 reps | 185 lb × 4 reps | 3,500 | 90% | 82% |
6 | 175 lb × 3 reps | 180 lb × 3 reps | 185 lb × 3 reps | 190 lb × 3 reps | 195 lb × 3 reps | 2,775 | 92% | 87% |
This is an example of periodization where the number of repetitions decreases while the weight increases.
Formas específicas de entrenamiento de fuerza
There are many methods of strength training. Examples include weight training, circuit training, isometric exercise, gymnastics, plyometrics, Parkour, yoga, Pilates, Super Slow.
Strength training may be done with minimal or no equipment, for instance bodyweight exercises. Equipment used for strength training includes barbells and dumbbells, weight machines and other exercise machines, weighted clothing, resistance bands, gymnastics apparatus, Swiss balls, wobble boards, indian clubs, pneumatic exercise equipment, hydraulic exercise equipment.
Práctica de entrenamiento con pesas
Aerobic exercise versus anaerobic exercise
Strength training exercise is primarily anaerobic.[32] Even while training at a lower intensity (training loads of ~20-RM), anaerobic glycolysis is still the major source of power, although aerobic metabolism makes a small contribution.[45] Weight training is commonly perceived as anaerobic exercise, because one of the more common goals is to increase strength by lifting heavy weights. Other goals such as rehabilitation, weight loss, body shaping, and bodybuilding often use lower weights, adding aerobic character to the exercise.
Except in the extremes, a muscle will fire fibres of both the aerobic or anaerobic types on any given exercise, in varying ratio depending on the load on the intensity of the contraction.[32] This is known as the energy system continuum. At higher loads, the muscle will recruit all muscle fibres possible, both anaerobic ("fast-twitch") and aerobic ("slow-twitch"), in order to generate the most force. However, at maximum load, the anaerobic processes contract so forcefully that the aerobic fibers are completely shut out, and all work is done by the anaerobic processes. Because the anaerobic muscle fibre uses its fuel faster than the blood and intracellular restorative cycles can resupply it, the maximum number of repetitions is limited.[46] In the aerobic regime, the blood and intracellular processes can maintain a supply of fuel and oxygen, and continual repetition of the motion will not cause the muscle to fail.
Circuit weight training is a form of exercise that uses a number of weight training exercise sets separated by short intervals. The cardiovascular effort to recover from each set serves a function similar to an aerobic exercise, but this is not the same as saying that a weight training set is itself an aerobic process.
Exercises for specific muscle groups
Weight trainers commonly divide the body's individual muscles into ten major muscle groups. These do not include the hip, neck and forearm muscles, which are rarely trained in isolation. The most common exercises for these muscle groups are listed below.
The sequence shown below is one possible way to order the exercises. The large muscles of the lower body are normally trained before the smaller muscles of the upper body, because these first exercises require more mental and physical energy. The core muscles of the torso are trained before the shoulder and arm muscles that assist them. Exercises often alternate between "pushing" and "pulling" movements to allow their specific supporting muscles time to recover. The stabilizing muscles in the waist should be trained last.
Advanced techniques
A number of techniques have been developed to make weight training exercises more intense, and thereby potentially increase the rate of progress. Many weight lifters use these techniques to bring themselves past a plateau, a duration where a weightlifter may be unable to do more lifting repetitions, sets, or use higher weight resistance.
Set structure
Drop sets
A drop set is an easy method of strength training where you perform a set of any exercise to failure or right before failure, and then reduce the weight and continue to lift for more repetitions with the decreased weight.
Pyramid sets
Pyramid sets are weight training sets in which the progression is from lighter weights with a greater number of repetitions in the first set, to heavier weights with fewer repetitions in subsequent sets.
A reverse pyramid is the opposite in which the heavier weights are used at the beginning and progressively lightened.
Burnouts
Burnouts combine pyramids and drop sets, working up to higher weights with low reps and then back down to lower weights and high reps. There are a few different ways one could perform burnout sets but the main idea is to perform an exercise until failure. You should start with a weight that is 75% of the amount of the maximum amount of weight you can lift for 1 rep. Once you've performed the exercise to exhaustion, reduce the weight and perform another set until failure, which will usually consist of much fewer repetitions. Burnout sets sound very similar to supersets but there are differences in the results they produce. Supersets help increase muscle mass, but are more efficient for producing muscle definition and shape. Burnout sets help increase muscle growth because of the buildup of lactic acid in the muscle when it's forced to the point of failure.
Diminishing set
The diminishing set method is where a weight is chosen that can be lifted for 20 reps in one set, and then 70 repetitions are performed in as few sets as possible.[47]:17
Rest-pause
The rest-pause training method takes one whole set and breaks it down into a few mini sets. There are two different goals that are associated with rest-pause training, including both hypertrophy and strength. To increase hypertrophy, an athlete typically performs a set at a comfortable weight for 6 to 10 reps and then sets the weight down. Next, they would take 15 seconds' worth of deep breaths, pick the weight back up, and lift to failure. The last step can be repeated any number of times after this, but it is commonly done twice. In order to increase strength using rest-pause method, most people choose a weight that is 85–95% of their one rep max. They then perform 1 rep with this weight, followed by a longer 30- to 45-second break, and repeat this process several times.[48]
Giant set
The Giant set, is a form of training that targets one muscle group (e.g. the triceps) with four separate exercises performed in quick succession, often to failure and sometimes with the reduction of weight halfway through a set once muscle fatigue sets in. This form of intense training 'shocks' the muscles and as such, is usually performed by experienced trainers and should be used infrequently.[49]
Combined sets
- Supersets
- Supersets combine two or more exercises with similar motions to maximize the amount of work of an individual muscle or group of muscles. [50][citation needed] The exercises are performed with no rest period in between the exercises. The two main types of supersets are opposing muscle group supersets and same muscle group supersets. An example would be doing bench press, which predominantly works the pectoralis and triceps muscles, and then moving to an exercise that works just the triceps such as the triceps extension or the pushdown.
- Push-pull supersets
- Push-pull supersets are similar to regular supersets, but exercises are chosen which work opposing muscle groups. This is especially popular when applied to arm exercises, for example by combining biceps curls with the triceps pushdown. Other examples include the shoulder press and lat pulldown combination, and the bench press and wide grip row combination. A calisthenic example is alternating between pull-ups and dips.
- Pre-exhaustion
- Pre-exhaustion combines an isolation exercise with a compound exercise for the same muscle group. The isolation exercise first exhausts the muscle group, and then the compound exercise uses the muscle group's supporting muscles to push it further than would otherwise be possible. For example, the triceps muscles normally help the pectorals perform their function. But in the "bench press" the weaker triceps often fails first, which limits the impact on the pectorals. By preceding the bench press with the pec fly, the pectorals can be pre-exhausted so that both muscles fail at the same time, and both benefit equally from the exercise.
- Breakdowns
- Breakdowns were developed by Frederick Hatfield and Mike Quinn to work the different types of muscle fibers for maximum stimulation. Three different exercises that work the same muscle group are selected, and used for a superset. The first exercise uses a heavy weight (~85% of 1 rep max) for around five reps, the second a medium weight (~70% of 1 rep max) for around twelve reps, and finally the third exercise is performed with a light weight (~50% of 1 rep max) for twenty to thirty reps, or even lighter (~40% of 1 rep max) for forty or more reps. ( Going to failure is discouraged.) The entire superset is performed three times. [47]:16–17
Beyond failure
- Forced reps
- Forced reps occur after momentary muscular failure. An assistant provides just enough help to get the weight trainer past the 'sticking point' of the exercise, and allow further repetitions to be completed. Weight trainers often do this when they are spotting their exercise partner. With some exercises forced reps can be done without a training partner. For example, with one-arm biceps curls the other arm can be used to assist the arm that is being trained.
- Cheat reps
- Cheating is a deliberate compromise of form to maximize reps. Cheating has the advantage that it can be done without a training partner, but compromises safety. A typical example of cheat reps occurs during biceps curls when, beginning with the load at the waist, the exerciser swings the barbell or dumbbell forward and up during the concentric phase utilizing momentum to assist their bicep muscles in moving the load to a shortened muscle position. Momentum assistance during the concentric phase allows them to move greater loads during the more difficult concentric phase. The objective can be to position greater loads of resistance to the biceps in preparation of performing the eccentric phase than the more difficult concentric phase would otherwise allow. Replacing a typical function of a training partner with a solo exerciser performing cheat reps facilitates forced reps or negative reps when training alone.
- Weight stripping a.k.a. Number Setting
- Weight stripping is a technique used after failure with a normal resistance in certain exercises, particularly with easily adjustable machines, whereby the weight trainer or a partner gradually reduces the resistance after a full set is taken to failure. With each reduction in resistance, as many possible reps are completed and the resistance is then reduced again. This is continued until the resistance is approximately half the original resistance.
- Negative reps
- Negative reps are performed with much heavier weights. Assistants lift the weight, and then the weight trainer attempts to resist its downward progress through an eccentric contraction. Alternatively, an individual can use an exercise machine for negatives by lifting the weight with both arms or legs, and then lowering it with only one. Or they can simply lower weights more slowly than they lift them: for example, by taking two seconds to lift each weight and four seconds to lower it.
- Partial reps
- Partial reps, as the name implies, involves movement through only part of the normal path of an exercise. Partial reps can be performed with heavier weights. Usually, only the easiest part of the repetition is attempted.
- Burns
- Burns involve mixing partial reps into a set of full range reps in order to increase intensity. The partials can be performed at any part of the exercise movement, depending on what works best for the particular exercise. Also, the partials can either be added after the end of a set or in some alternating fashion with the full range reps. [51] For example, after performing a set of biceps curls to failure, an individual would cheat the bar back to the most contracted position, and then perform several partial reps.
Other techniques
- Progressive movement training
- Progressive movement training attempts to gradually increase the range of motion throughout a training cycle. The lifter will start with a much heavier weight than they could handle in the full range of motion, only moving through the last 3 to 5 inches of the movement. Throughout the training cycle, the lifter will gradually increase the range of motion until the joint moves through the full range of the exercise. This is a style that was made popular by Paul Anderson. [citation needed]
- Variable resistance training
- This involves adjusting resistance during a weight training exercise in order that it matches the phases of strength which a person naturally moves through (a.k.a. their strength curve). [note 1] This is done to increase resistance during the phase of a lift where a person is strongest and reduce it at the phase of the lift where they are weakest. In this way the percentage of 1RM for each phase respectively can be maintained, or a discrepancy reduced. For example, when performing a back squat the 1RM for the lower weaker phase may be 60 kg and for the higher stronger phase 90 kg. To ensure the same percentage of 1RM for each phase is lifted, or a comparable amount of resistance overcome, heavy chains or large rubber bands may be attached to the end of the barbell to vary the resistance during the exercise i.e. increase it at the top of the lift and decrease it at the bottom. Alternatively, and to continue the previous back squat example, full reps could be performed with 60 kg and combined with partial reps, which remain in the stronger movement range, at 90 kg. [52][53]
- Time under tension
- Time under tension or TUT repetitions are performed with lighter weights. Time under tension refers to the amount of time your muscle under stress during a set. This consists of the time spent in the concentric or the shortening phase, peak contraction phase, as well as the eccentric or the lengthening phase. For example, if you go perform a set of 10 reps and each rep takes 3 seconds to complete, your muscle is under tension for a total of 30 seconds. If you were to perform the same exercise but if you spent 2 seconds in the concentric phase, 1 second to stop during peak contraction, and 3 seconds to lower the weight during the eccentric phase of the rep, the same 10 reps would end up putting your muscles under tension for about 60 seconds. New technology ( i.e. smartphones) have been leveraged to validly and reliably measure TUT [54]
- Wrist straps
- Wrist straps (lifting straps) are sometimes used to assist in gripping very heavy weights. Wrist straps can be used to isolate muscle groups like in "lat pull-downs", where the trainee would primarily use the latissimus dorsi muscles of the back rather than the biceps. They are particularly useful for the deadlift. Some lifters avoid using wrist straps to develop their grip strength, just as some go further by using thick bars. Wrist straps can allow a lifter initially to use more weight than they might be able to handle safely for an entire set, as unlike simply holding a weight, if it is dropped then the lifter must descend with it or be pulled down. Straps place stress on the bones of the wrist which can be potentially harmful if excessive.
Técnicas combinadas
Strength training may involve the combining of different training methods such as weight training, plyometrics, bodyweight exercises, and ballistic exercises. This is often done in order to improve a person's ability to apply their strength quickly. Or in other words, to improve their ability to apply explosive power.
Loaded plyometrics
Loaded plyometrics involve the addition of weights to jumping exercises. The weights may be held or worn. For instance, vertical jumps whilst holding a trap bar or jumping split squats whilst holding dumbbells. This helps to enhance the explosive power of the athlete.[55]
Complex training
Complex training, sometimes incorrectly referred to as contrast training (see below), involves the alternation of weight training and plyometric exercises. Ideally, both sets of exercises should move through similar ranges of movement; such a pairing is called a complex, or contrast, pair. For instance, a set of heavy back squats at about 85–95% 1RM followed by a set of jumping exercises. The intention is to utilise the intense nervous system activation and increased muscle fibre recruitment from the heavy lift in the plyometric exercise; thereby increasing the power with which it can be performed. Over a period of training, this may result in the athlete being able to perform the plyometric exercise more powerfully, without the requirement of the preceding heavy lift.[56] Working on the same principles, a sports specific action may be incorporated instead of the plyometric exercise; the intention, in this case, being to increase the athlete's ability to perform the sports specific action more powerfully.
Ballistic training
Ballistic training, sometimes referred to as power training, is based upon the principle of maximizing the acceleration phase of the exercise and minimizing the deceleration phase; this helps to improve the athlete's explosive power. On this basis, ballistic training may include exercises which involve the throwing of a weight, such as a medicine ball, or jumping whilst holding or wearing a weight.[57]
Contrast loading
Contrast loading is the alternation of heavy and light loads i.e. a heavy bench press set at about 85–95% 1RM followed by a light bench press set at about 30–60% 1RM. The heavy set should be performed fast with the light set being performed as fast as possible. The joints should not be locked as this inhibits muscle fibre recruitment and reduces the speed at which the exercise can be performed. A loaded plyometric exercise, or ballistic exercise, may take the place of the light lift.
Similarly to complex training, contrast loading relies on the intense nervous system activation and enhanced muscle fibre recruitment from the heavy lift to help improve the power with which the subsequent exercise can be performed.[58] This physiological effect is commonly referred to as post-activation potentiation, or the PAP effect. By way of explanation, if a light weight is lifted, and then a heavy weight is lifted, and then the same light weight is lifted again, then the light weight will feel lighter the second time it is lifted. This is due to the increased PAP effect from the heavy lift allowing for greater power to be applied and thus making the subsequent lighter lift feel even lighter than before. Explosive power training programs are frequently designed to specifically utilize the PAP effect.
Bodybuilding
Bodybuilding is a sport in which the goal is to increase muscle size and definition. Bodybuilding increases the endurance of muscles, as well as strength, though not as much as if they were the primary goals. Bodybuilders compete in bodybuilding competitions, and use specific principles and methods of strength training to maximize muscular size and develop extremely low levels of body fat. In contrast, most strength trainers train to improve their strength and endurance while not giving special attention to reducing body fat below normal. Strength trainers tend to focus on compound exercises to build basic strength, whereas bodybuilders often use isolation exercises to visually separate their muscles, and to improve muscular symmetry. Pre-contest training for bodybuilders is different again, in that they attempt to retain as much muscular tissue as possible while undergoing severe dieting. However, the bodybuilding community has been the source of many strength training principles, techniques, vocabulary, and customs.
Nutrición
It is widely accepted that strength training must be matched by changes in diet in order to be effective. Although aerobic exercise is often observed to have an effect on the dietary intake of macronutrients, strength training has not[59] and an increase in dietary protein is generally believed to be required for building skeletal muscle.
A review of 49 research studies found that supplementation of protein in the diet of healthy adults increased the size and strength of muscles during prolonged resistance exercise training; protein intakes of greater than 1.6 g/kg/day did not additionally increase fat-free mass or muscle size or strength.[60] Protein that is neither needed for cell growth and repair nor consumed for energy is converted into urea mainly through the deamination process and is excreted by the kidneys. It was once thought that a high-protein diet entails risk of kidney damage, but studies have shown that kidney problems only occur in people with previous kidney disease. However, failure to properly hydrate can put an increased strain on the kidney's ability to function.[61][62] An adequate supply of carbohydrates (5–7 g per kg) is also needed as a source of energy and for the body to restore glycogen levels in muscles.[63]
A light, balanced meal prior to the workout (usually one to two hours beforehand) ensures that adequate energy and amino acids are available for the intense bout of exercise. The type of nutrients consumed affects the response of the body, and nutrient timing whereby protein and carbohydrates are consumed prior to and after workout has a beneficial impact on muscle growth.[64] Water is consumed throughout the course of the workout to prevent poor performance due to dehydration. A protein shake is often consumed immediately[65] following the workout, because both protein uptake and protein usage are increased at this time.[citation needed] Glucose (or another simple sugar) is often consumed as well since this quickly replenishes any glycogen lost during the exercise period. If consuming recovery drink after a workout, to maximize muscle protein anabolism, it is suggested that the recovery drink contain glucose (dextrose), protein (usually whey) hydrolysate containing mainly dipeptides and tripeptides, and leucine.[66] Some weight trainers also take ergogenic aids such as creatine or steroids to aid muscle growth. However, the effectiveness of some products is disputed and others are potentially harmful.
Diferencias de sexo en el entrenamiento
Men have a higher percentage of fast-twitch type II muscle fiber, which gives them strength.[67][68] On the other hand, women have a higher proportion of type 1 slow-twitch muscle fibers, which contributes to their endurance.[67][68] Since women have a higher percentage of slow-twitch muscle fiber, they can do better with higher reps and higher volume without overtraining the muscle.[67][68] Research has shown that women can have a more significant muscle growth doing reps with a higher range of movement.[67] On the other hand, men can do more explosive movement because men have a bigger motor cortex in the brain, which controls the movement and help men to generate more force.[67] Women recover less well when doing explosive exercise and are less likely to build muscle from doing explosive activities.[67] Women do not have to rest as long between sets as men because women have a lower arterial blood pressure during exercise, which allows more blood and oxygen to go to the muscle.[67] Moreover, women's bodies make less byproduct, lactate, that creates the "burn" feeling in the muscle, resulting in that the muscle tissue can tolerate higher stress for a more extended period of time.[67] Women not only recover faster between sets, they also recover faster after a workout compared to men.[67] Since women don't react well to explosive exercise and have higher endurance, women do better with steady-state cardio and complete reps with a slow and control motion, instead of explosive exercise, such as sprinting.[67] The strength difference between men and women also varies due to the ratio between fat and lean muscle mass in different body parts, and that is the reason why most men have a stronger upper body, while women are stronger than men in the lower body.[68]
Men have a higher testosterone level, which power strength, muscle mass, and strength.[68] Women have a higher estrogen level, which helps them with muscle recovery and supports the muscle's ability to use glucose as fuel.[68] Even though studies has shown that men are more capable of increasing muscle mass compared to women when doing same intensities and years of training, both men and women's bodies produce a hormone that spikes their strength and support muscle building.[68][69] Men's bodies produce more testosterone that helps with muscle building when they are training, while women's bodies produce more human growth hormone that aids with tissue and muscle building.[68] Women's hormone also changes due to the menstrual cycle.[68] During the follicular phase, women have a decrease in progesterone level, which helps prevent muscle damage and aids with recovery.[68] On the other hand, the increase of progesterone levels during the luteal phase can negatively impact the body's ability to recover from muscle damage.[68] It is suggested that women should increase the intensity of training during the week and the week after the menstrual cycle to maximize the training progress.[68]
Sex differences in mass gains
Due to the androgenic hormonal differences between males and females, women are generally unable to develop large muscles regardless of the training program used.[70] Normally the most that can be achieved is a look similar to that of a fitness model. Muscle is denser than fat, so someone who builds muscle while keeping the same body weight will occupy less volume; if two people weigh the same (and are the same height) but have different lean body mass percentages, the one with more muscle will appear thinner.[71]
In addition, though bodybuilding uses the same principles as strength training, it is with a goal of gaining muscle bulk. Strength trainers with different goals and programs will not gain the same mass as a professional bodybuilder.
Muscle toning
Some weight trainers perform light, high-repetition exercises in an attempt to "tone" their muscles without increasing their size.
The word tone derives from the Latin "tonus" (meaning "tension"). In anatomy and physiology, as well as medicine, the term "muscle tone" refers to the continuous and passive partial contraction of the muscles, or the muscles' resistance to passive stretching during resting state as determined by a deep tendon reflex. Muscle tonus is dependent on neurological input into the muscle. In medicine, observations of changes in muscle tonus can be used to determine normal or abnormal states which can be indicative of pathology. The common strength training term "tone" is derived from this use.
What muscle builders refer to as a toned physique or "muscle firmness" is one that combines reasonable muscular size with moderate levels of body fat, qualities that may result from a combination of diet and exercise.[72]
Muscle tone or firmness is derived from the increase in actin and myosin cross filaments in the sarcomere. When this occurs the same amount of neurological input creates a greater firmness or tone in the resting continuous and passive partial contraction in the muscle.
Exercises of 6–12 reps cause hypertrophy of the sarcoplasm in slow-twitch and high-twitch muscle fibers, contributing to overall increased muscle bulk. This is not to be confused with myofibril hypertrophy which leads to strength gains. Both, however, can occur to an extent during this rep range. Even though most are of the opinion that higher repetitions are best for producing the desired effect of muscle firmness or tone, it is not. Low volume strength training of 5 repetitions or fewer will increase strength by increasing actin and myosin cross filaments thereby increasing muscle firmness or tone. The low volume of this training will inhibit the hypertrophy effect.[73]
Lowered-calorie diets have no positive effect on muscle hypertrophy for muscle of any fiber type. They may, however, decrease the thickness of subcutaneous fat (fat between muscle and skin), through an overall reduction in body fat, thus making muscle striations more visible.
Weight loss
Exercises like sit-ups, or abdominal crunches, performs less work than whole-body aerobic exercises[74] thereby expending fewer calories during exercise than jogging, for example.
Hypertrophy serves to maintain muscle mass, for an elevated basal metabolic rate, which has the potential to burn more calories in a given period compared to aerobics. This helps to maintain a higher metabolic rate which would otherwise diminish after metabolic adaption to dieting, or upon completion of an aerobic routine.[75]
In general, one can lose weight by being in a calorie deficit. A calorie deficit can be done in different ways; It can be done by consuming less than the amount of calories that are required to maintain your current body weight or by increasing the energy expenditure, enough that is more than the calorie intake. Lean muscles require calories to maintain themselves at rest, which will help reduce fat through an increase in the basal metabolic rate.
Historia
Until the 20th century, the history of strength training was very similar to the history of weight training. With the advent of modern technology, materials and knowledge, the methods that can be used for strength training have multiplied significantly.
Hippocrates explained the principle behind strength training when he wrote "that which is used develops, and that which is not used wastes away", referring to muscular hypertrophy and atrophy. Progressive resistance training dates back at least to Ancient Greece, when legend has it that wrestler Milo of Croton trained by carrying a newborn calf on his back every day until it was fully grown. Another Greek, the physician Galen, described strength training exercises using the halteres (an early form of dumbbell) in the 2nd century. Ancient Persians used the meels, which became popular during the 19th century as the Indian club, and has recently made a comeback in the form of the clubbell.
The dumbbell was joined by the barbell in the latter half of the 19th century. Early barbells had hollow globes that could be filled with sand or lead shot, but by the end of the century these were replaced by the plate-loading barbell commonly used today.[76]
Strength training with isometric exercise was popularised by Charles Atlas from the 1930s onwards. The 1960s saw the gradual introduction of exercise machines into the still-rare strength training gyms of the time. Strength training became increasingly popular in the 1980s following the release of the bodybuilding movie Pumping Iron and the subsequent popularity of Arnold Schwarzenegger.[77]
Poblaciones especiales
Orthopaedic specialists used to recommend that children avoid weight training because the growth plates on their bones might be at risk. The very rare reports of growth plate fractures in children who trained with weights occurred as a result of inadequate supervision, improper form or excess weight, and there have been no reports of injuries to growth plates in youth training programs that followed established guidelines.[78][79] The position of the National Strength and Conditioning Association is that strength training is safe for children if properly designed and supervised.[80]
Younger children are at greater risk of injury than adults if they drop a weight on themselves or perform an exercise incorrectly; further, they may lack understanding of, or ignore the safety precautions around weight training equipment. As a result, supervision of minors is considered vital to ensuring the safety of any youth engaging in strength training.[78][79]
Australia's stance on pre-adolescence strength training
Strength training is the fourth most popular form of fitness in Australia.[81] Due to its popularity amongst all ages, there is great scepticism on what the appropriate age to commence strength training in young athletes is. Some points of the opposing view of strength training in young adolescence are stunted growth, health and bone problems in later stages of life and unhealthy eating habits.[82] Studies by Australian experts that have been recognised by the Australian Institute of Sport (AIS) have debunked these myths. There is no link between any prolonged health risks and strength training in pre-adolescence if the procedures of strength training are followed correctly and under suitable supervision. Strength training for pre-adolescents should focus on skills and techniques. Children should only work on strengthening all the big muscle groups, using free weight and body weight movements with relatively light loads. The benefits of these practices include increased strength performance, injury prevention and learning good training principles.[83]
For older adults
Older adults are prone to loss of muscle strength.[84][85] With more strength older adults have better health, better quality of life, better physical function[85] and fewer falls.[85] In cases in which an older person begins strength training, their doctor or health care provider may neglect to emphasize a strength training program which results in muscle gains. Under-dosed strength training programs should be avoided in favor of a program which matches the abilities and goals of the person exercising.[86]
In setting up an exercise program for an older adult, they should go through a baseline fitness assessment to determine their current limits. Any exercise program for older adults should match the intensity, frequency, and duration of exercise that the person can perform. The program should have a goal of increased strength as compared to the baseline measurement.[86]
Recommended training for older adults is three times a week of light strength training exercises. Exercise machines are a commonly used equipment in a gym setting, including treadmills with exercises such as walking or light jogging. Home-based exercises should usually consist of body weight or elastic band exercises that maintain a low level of impact on the muscles. Weights can also be used by older adults if they maintain a lighter weight load with an average amount of repetitions (10–12 reps) with suitable supervision. It is important for older adults to maintain a light level of strength training with low levels of impact to avoid injuries.[87]
Older people who exercise against a resistance or force become stronger.[85] Progressive resistance training (PRT) also improves physical functioning in older people, including the performance of simple (e.g.: walking, climbing stairs, rising from a chair more quickly) and complex daily activities (e.g.: bathing, cooking).[85] Caution is recommended when transferring PRT exercises for clinical populations, as adverse effects are unclear.[85]
Ver también
- Ballistic training
- Body image
- Bodybuilding supplement
- Complex training
- Exercise physiology
- Fitness boot camp
- Fitness culture
- General fitness training
- Gym
- Health club
- List of health and fitness magazines
- Metabolic window
- Mixed martial arts
- Muscle dysmorphia
- Nutrient timing
- Overtraining
- Personal trainer
- Physical culture
- Physical exercise
- Physical fitness
- Plyometrics
- Power training
- Sports medicine
- Super Slow
- Supercompensation
- Weight training bench
Notas
- ^ A movement may be considered as having any number of strength phases but usually is considered as having two main phases: a stronger and a weaker. When the movement becomes stronger during the exercise, this is called an ascending strength curve i.e. bench press, squat, deadlift. And when it becomes weaker this is called a descending strength curve i.e. chin ups, upright row, standing lateral raise. Some exercises involve a different pattern of strong-weak-strong. This is called a bell shaped strength curve i.e. bicep curls where there can be a sticking point roughly midway.
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Otras lecturas
- Delavier, Frederic (2001). Strength Training Anatomy. Human Kinetics Publishers. ISBN 0-7360-4185-0.
- DeLee, J. MD and Drez, D. MD, Eds. (2003). DeLee & Drez's Orthopaedic Sports Medicine; Principles and Practice (vols 1 & 2). ISBN 0-7216-8845-4.
- Hatfield, Frederick (1993). Hardcore Bodybuilding: A Scientific Approach. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-8092-3728-8.
- Legeard, Emmanuel (2008). Musculation. Amphora. ISBN 2851807420.
- Issurin, Vladimir and Yessis, Michael, PhD. (2008). "Block Periodization: Breakthrough In Sports Training". Ultimate Athlete Concepts. ISBN 0-9817180-0-0.
- Lombardi, V. Patteson (1989). Beginning Weight Training. Wm. C. Brown Publishers. ISBN 0-697-10696-9.
- Powers, Scott and Howley, Edward (2003), Exercise Physiology. McGraw Hill. ISBN 0-07-255728-1.
- Rippetoe, Mark and Kilgore, Lon (2007) "Starting Strength (2nd Edition)". The Aasgaard Company. ISBN 0-9768054-2-1
- Schoenfeld, Brad (2002). Sculpting Her Body Perfect. Human Kinetics Publishers. ISBN 0-7360-4469-8.
- Schwarzenegger, Arnold (1999). The New Encyclopedia of Modern Bodybuilding. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-684-85721-9.