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Un lingam de Shiva con tripundra
"Linga" y "Shivling" vuelven a dirigir aquí. Para otros usos, vea Linga (desambiguación) y Shivling (desambiguación) .

Un lingam ( sánscrito : लिङ्ग IAST : liṅga , literalmente "signo, símbolo o marca"), a veces denominado linga o Shiva linga , es una representación abstracta o anicónica del dios hindú Shiva en el Shaivismo . [1] El significado original de lingam como "signo" se usa en Shvetashvatara Upanishad , que dice "Shiva, el Señor Supremo, no tiene liūga", liuga ( sánscrito : लि ū ग IAST : liūga ) lo que significa que es trascendente, más allá de cualquier característica y, en concreto, del signo de género. [2] [3] Es típicamente el murti principal o imagen devocional en los templos hindúes dedicados a Shiva, que también se encuentra en santuarios más pequeños o como objetos naturales auto-manifestados . [4] [5] A menudo se representa dentro de una plataforma en forma de disco. [1] [6] Los lingayats usan un lingam dentro de un collar, llamado Ishtalinga . [7] [8] Por lo general, se muestra con yoni , su contraparte femenina. [9] [10]Juntos, simbolizan la fusión de microcosmos y macrocosmos, [10] el proceso eterno divino de creación y regeneración, y la unión de lo femenino y lo masculino que recrea toda la existencia. [11] [12] El lingam se conceptualiza como un emblema de poder generativo y destructivo, [11] [13] particularmente en las prácticas esotéricas de Kaula y Tantra , así como en las tradiciones de Shaivismo y Shaktismo del Hinduismo. [14]

El principio creativo metafórico del lingam-yoni, la unión de lo femenino y lo masculino, el proceso cosmológico eterno de la creación también se describe en la filosofía china del Yin y el Yang , [15] [16] donde etimológica y semánticamente Yin representa lo femenino, la mitad de la unidad de conciencia y Yang denota lo masculino, la otra mitad, juntos simboliza la totalidad o unidad de conciencia en la creación. [15]

"Lingam" se encuentra además en textos sánscritos , como Shvetashvatara Upanishad , Samkhya , Vaisheshika y otros textos con el significado de "evidencia, prueba" de Dios y la existencia de Dios. [21] La iconografía lingam encontrada en sitios arqueológicos del subcontinente indio y el sureste de Asia incluye cilindros simples colocados dentro de un yoni ; pilares redondeados de mukhalinga con tallas de uno o más mukha (caras); y representaciones anatómicamente realistas de un falo como en Gudimallam . [nota 1] [25]En las tradiciones de Shaiva, el lingam se considera una forma de iconografía espiritual. [26] [27] [28]

Nomenclatura y significado

Lingam como se interpreta en la tradición Shaiva Siddhanta , una de las principales escuelas de Shaivismo . Las partes superior e inferior representan las perfecciones Parashiva y Parashakti del Señor Shiva .

Lingam, afirma Monier Monier-Williams , aparece en los Upanishads y en la literatura épica , donde significa "marca, signo, emblema, característica". [19] [27] Otros significados contextuales del término incluyen "evidencia, prueba, síntoma" de Dios y el poder de Dios. [19] [20] El término también aparece en los primeros textos indios sobre lógica, donde una inferencia se basa en un signo (linga), como "si hay humo, hay fuego" donde el linga es el humo. [19] Es un símbolo religioso en el hinduismo que representa a Shiva como el poder generativo, [27] toda la existencia, toda la creatividad y la fertilidad en todos los niveles cósmicos. [9] [29]

El lingam de la tradición Shaivismo es un símbolo de Shiva en forma de pilar cilíndrico corto, hecho de piedra, metal, gema, madera, arcilla o piedras preciosas. [30] [1] [31] Según Encyclopædia Britannica , el lingam es un objeto anicónico votario que se encuentra en el santuario de los templos de Shiva y santuarios privados que simboliza a Shiva y es "venerado como un emblema del poder generativo". [1] A menudo se encuentra dentro de una estructura con labios y discos que es un emblema de la diosa Shakti y esto se llama yoni . Juntos simbolizan la unión de los principios femenino y masculino, y "la totalidad de toda la existencia", afirmaEncyclopædia Britannica . [1]

Según Alex Wayman, dados los textos filosóficos e interpretaciones espirituales de Shaiva, varios trabajos sobre el Shaivismo de algunos autores indios "niegan que el linga sea un falo". [26] Para los shaivitas, un linga no es un falo ni practican el culto erótico del pene-vulva, sino que el linga-yoni es un símbolo de los misterios cósmicos, los poderes creativos y la metáfora de las verdades espirituales de su fe. . [32]

Según Sivaya Subramuniyaswami, el lingam significa tres perfecciones de Shiva . [33] [se necesita una mejor fuente ] La parte ovalada superior del Shivalingam representa Parashiva y la parte inferior del Shivalingam llamada pitha representa Parashakti . [33] [se necesita una mejor fuente ] En la perfección Parashiva , Shiva es la realidad absoluta, lo atemporal, lo informe y lo espacial. En la perfección de Parashakti , Shiva es omnipresente, conciencia pura , poder y sustancia primordial de todo lo que existe y tiene una forma a diferencia de Parashiva, que no tiene forma. [34][2] Según Rohit Dasgupta, el lingam simboliza a Shiva en el hinduismo, y también es un símbolo fálico. [9] Desde el siglo XIX, afirma Dasgupta, la literatura popular ha representado al lingam como el órgano sexual masculino. Este punto de vista contrasta con los valores abstractos tradicionales que representan en el Shivaísmo, donde el lingam-yoni connotan los principios masculino y femenino en la totalidad de la creación y toda la existencia. [9]

Según Sivananda Saraswati , Siva Lingam habla un lenguaje inconfundible de silencio: "Soy uno sin segundo, no tengo forma". [35] Siva Lingam es sólo el símbolo exterior del ser sin forma, el Señor Siva , quien es la esencia eterna , siempre pura e inmortal de este vasto universo, quien es tu Ser más íntimo o Atman , y quien es idéntico al Brahman Supremo , afirma Sivananda Saraswati . [35]

Los estudiosos, como Wendy Doniger y Rohit Dasgupta , ven el linga como extrapolaciones de lo que originalmente era un símbolo fálico. [36] [37] [38] [39] Esta interpretación es criticada por Stella Kramrisch [40] y Moriz Winternitz, quienes opinan que el linga en la tradición de Shiva es "sólo un símbolo del principio productivo y creativo de la naturaleza tal como se encarna en Shiva ", y no tiene rastro histórico en ningún culto fálico obsceno. [41]

Historia

Evidencia arqueológica en la civilización del valle del Indo

Pedestal de lingam y yoni de piedra encontrados en Cát Tiên , Vietnam, alrededor del siglo VIII. Con 2,1 metros de altura, este es el lingam más grande jamás encontrado en el sudeste asiático.

Según Chakrabarti, "algunas de las piedras encontradas en Mohenjodaro son piedras inequívocamente fálicas". Estos están fechados en algún momento antes del 2300 a. C. De manera similar, afirma Chakrabarti, el sitio Kalibangan de Harappa tiene una pequeña representación de terracota que "sin duda se consideraría la réplica de un Shivlinga moderno [una piedra tubular]". [42] Según Encyclopædia Britannica, mientras que los descubrimientos de Harappan incluyen "pilares cilíndricos cortos con cimas redondeadas", no hay evidencia de que la gente de la civilización del valle del Indo adorara estos artefactos como lingams. [1]

Una estupa budista (arriba) puede haber influido en la iconografía posterior del Shiva-linga hindú, según Swami Vivekananda. [43] [nota 2]

Los arqueólogos de la era colonial John Marshall y Ernest Mackay propusieron que ciertos artefactos encontrados en los sitios de Harappa pueden ser evidencia del culto yoni-linga en la civilización del valle del Indo. [45] Eruditos como Arthur Llewellyn Basham discuten si los artefactos descubiertos en los sitios arqueológicos de los sitios del Valle del Indo son yoni. [45] [46] Por ejemplo, Jones y Ryan afirman que las formas lingam / yoni se han recuperado de los sitios arqueológicos de Harappa y Mohenjo-daro , parte de la civilización del valle del Indo . [47] [48]Por el contrario, la indóloga Wendy Doniger afirma que este artefacto relativamente raro se puede interpretar de muchas maneras y se ha utilizado indebidamente para especulaciones salvajes como ser un linga. Otro sello de sello del Indo a menudo llamado el sello de Pashupati , afirma Doniger, tiene una imagen con un parecido general con Shiva y "la gente del Indo bien pudo haber creado el simbolismo del falo divino", pero dada la evidencia disponible no podemos estar seguros, ni ¿Sabemos que tenía el mismo significado que algunos proyectan actualmente? [49]

Según el indólogo Asko Parpola , "es cierto que las hipótesis de Marshall y Mackay sobre la adoración del linga y el yoni por parte de los harappans se han basado en bases bastante escasas, y que, por ejemplo, la interpretación de las llamadas piedras anulares como yonis parece insostenible". . [45] Cita el artículo de Dales 1984, que afirma "con la única excepción de la fotografía no identificada de un objeto fálico realista en el informe de Marshall, no hay evidencia arqueológica que apoye las afirmaciones de aspectos especiales de orientación sexual de la religión Harappa". [45]Sin embargo, agrega Parpola, un nuevo examen en los sitios del valle del Indo sugiere que la hipótesis de Mackay no puede descartarse porque ahora se han identificado en Harappan escenas eróticas y sexuales como hombres itifálicos, mujeres desnudas, una pareja humana teniendo relaciones sexuales y huellas de trébol. sitios. [45] El "soporte circular finamente pulido" encontrado por Mackay puede ser yoni aunque se encontró sin el linga. La ausencia de linga, afirma Parpola, tal vez porque estaba hecho de madera que no sobrevivió. [45]

Shvetashvatara Upanishad

Shvetashvatara Upanishad establece uno de los tres significados, el principal, del Lingam como " el imperecedero Purusha ", la realidad absoluta , [3] donde dice el linga como "signo", una marca que proporciona la existencia de Brahman . [2] [50] Además, mencionó que Shiva es trascendente, más allá de cualquier característica o liūga , específicamente, el signo de género. [2] Linga, "signo", no solo significa la existencia de "cosas" perceptibles, sino que también denota la esencia imperceptible de "una cosa".o pedazos de Brahman llamados Atma [50]incluso antes de que la cosa en su forma concreta haya llegado a existir. [nota 3] La esencia imperceptible de "una cosa", en su potencialidad, es la liūga de la cosa. [2] La percepción del Shvetashvatara Upanishad transmitida a través de la palabra liūga se formula explícitamente en Samkhya y las escuelas de Yoga o formas de ver las cosas , es decir, mirar su apariencia y la Realidad Última. [2] Liriga aquí denota el cuerpo sutil (liṇga śarīra) subyacente y ontológico que precede a cualquier cosa perceptible. [2] El estado perceptible, en este contexto, es el cuerpo denso(sthūla śarīra), o realidad concreta tal como aparece a los órganos de los sentidos. Entre la realidad última y concreta está Prakṛti , también llamado Pradhana [2], que es el sustrato imperceptible del mundo manifiesto o premateria. [51] De esta sustancia cósmica imperceptible, han salido todas las cosas, ya las que volverán en última instancia. [2]

Los tres Gunas son Sattva , Rajas y Tamas . La función como tendencias a través de los principios y poderes de la sustancia cósmica coherente son Buddhi , "inteligencia o revelación cósmica"; Ahamkara , "individuación"; y Manas , "Mente". De estos evoluciona el poder ( Indriya ) de la cognición que permite que exista el oído, el sentimiento, la vista, el gusto y el olfato y sus correspondientes elementos sutiles. [2] A partir de estos suprasensibles ( Tanmatras ), surgen los detalles de los sentidos ( Mahābhūta ). [2] Son étero espacio ( Akasha ), aire ( Vayu ), fuego ( Agni ), agua ( Ap ) y tierra ( Bhumi ), los Pancha Bhootas . [52] Son los vehículos de los Tanmatras y constituyen el cuerpo denso de la realidad concreta, perceptible y particularizada. El cuerpo sutil (liṇga śarīra) es el prototipo sutil del cuerpo denso, la materia imperceptible de energía por la cual todos los fenómenos se proyectan en la realidad concreta, como fuego desde su latencia. [52] El cuerpo sutil, en sí mismo inmutable, acompaña la vida-del-individuo (Jiva) a través delciclos de nacimiento y muerte y finalmente se reabsorbe en los principios y poderes que lo componen. [52]

Linga purana

El Linga Purana dice: "Shiva no tiene signos, no tiene color, sabor, olor, está más allá de la palabra o el tacto, sin cualidad, inmóvil e inmutable". [53] La fuente del universo es el sin signo, y todo el universo es el Linga manifestado, una unión del principio inmutable y la naturaleza siempre cambiante . [53] Los textos de Linga Purana y Siva Gita se basan en esta base. [54] [55] Linga, afirma Alain Daniélou , significa signo. [53] Es un concepto importante en los textos hindúes, en el que Linga es un signo manifestado y la naturaleza de alguien o algo. Acompaña el concepto deBrahman , que como Principio invisible sin signos y existente, carece de forma o de linga. [53]

Literatura védica

La palabra lingam no se encuentra en el Rigveda , [56] ni en los otros Vedas. [57] Sin embargo, Rudra (proto-Shiva) se encuentra en la literatura védica. [56] [58] La adoración del lingam no era parte de la religión védica . La adoración del lingam se originó a partir del famoso himno del Atharva Veda Samhita cantado en alabanza del Yupa-Stambha , el poste del sacrificio. En ese himno, se encuentra una descripción del Stambha o Skambha sin comienzo e interminable , y se muestra que dicho Skambha se coloca en el lugar del Brahman eterno.. Así como el fuego del Yajna (sacrificio), su humo, cenizas y llamas, la planta Soma y el buey que solía llevar en su lomo la madera para el sacrificio védico dieron lugar a las concepciones del brillo del cuerpo de Shiva, su El cabello castaño enmarañado, su garganta azul y el montar en el toro de Shiva, el Yupa-Skambha cedió su lugar en el tiempo al Shiva-Linga . [59] [60] En el texto Linga Purana , el mismo himno se expande en forma de historias, destinadas a establecer la gloria del gran Stambha y la superioridad de Shiva como Mahadeva. [60]

There is a hymn in the Atharvaveda that praises a pillar (stambha), and this is one possible origin of linga worship.[61] According to Swami Vivekananda, the Shiva-linga had origins in the idea of Yupa-Stambha or Skambha of the Vedic rituals, where the term meant the sacrificial post which was then idealized as the eternal Brahman. The Yupa-Skambha gave place in time to the Shiva-Linga, quite possibly with influence from Buddhism's stupa shaped like the top of a stone linga, according to Vivekananda.[43][60]

Early iconography and temples

Gudimallam Lingam (Andhra Pradesh) has been dated to between the 3rd and 1st century BCE. The phallic pillar[note 1] is anatomically accurate and depicts Shiva with an antelope and axe in his hands standing over a dwarf demon.[62]

The Gudimallam Lingam, one of the oldest examples of a lingam, is still in worship in the Parashurameshwara temple, Gudimallam, in a hilly forest about 20 kilometres (12 mi) east of Tirupati in Andhra Pradesh.[63] It has been dated to the 3rd-century BCE,[1] or to the 2nd century BCE,[23] and is mostly accepted to be from the 3rd- to 1st-century BCE,[62] though some later dates have been proposed. The stone lingam is clearly a detailed representation of an erect phallus, with a figure of Shiva carved on the front, holding an antelope and axe in his hands.[62][64] He stands on top of a Apasmara (demon) dwarf, who symbolizes spiritual ignorance, greed, lust or Kama and nonsensical speech on the spiritual path, hence must be subdued in spiritual pursuits.[65][66][67] The key detail to be noted in this earliest representation is that, the phallic representation that points up illustrates of the centrality of the energetic principle of Urdhva Retas (Sanskrit: ऊर्ध्वरेतस् IAST: Ūrdhvaretas, lit. "ascent of vital energies or fluid") practice of celibacy (Brahmacarya)[68] and the upward flow of energy in spiritual pursuits, contrary to fertility or release of vital energies.[69][70][71][72][73] According to Stella Kramrisch, the pictorial symbol of the Gudimallam lingam should not be mistaken for fertility or sexuality due to incomplete or impure understanding of the underlying refined principles.[note 4][75]

The Bhita linga – now at the Lucknow museum – is also dated to about the 2nd century BCE, and has four directional faces on the pillar and a Brahmi script inscription at the bottom.[76][77][78] Above the four faces, the Bhita linga has the bust of a male with his left hand holding a vase and the right hand in the abhaya (no-fear) mudra.[77][note 5] The pillar itself is, once again, a realistic depiction of phallus but neither symbolizes fertility nor sexuality, but the refined energetic principles of Urdhva Retas[note 6] during Sannyasa or Asceticism.[71][69][72][77][73]

Lingam from Angkor period on display at the National Museum of Cambodia. Discovered in Battambang Province (Cambodia), it is made of bronze, quartz and silver.

The Mathura archaeological site has revealed similar lingams, with a standing Shiva in front (2nd century CE) and with one or four faces around the pillar (1st to 3rd century CE).[81][82]

Numerous stone and cave temples from the mid to late 1st millennium feature lingams. The Bhumara Temple near Satna Madhya Pradesh, for example, is generally dated to late 5th-century Gupta Empire era, and it features an Ekamukha Lingam.[83][84]

Mahabharata

According to Wendy Doniger, lingam in the Mahabharata is represented as the phallic form which suggests Sthula sarira of Shiva,[62][85] although not the primary significance,[2] however it connotes much more than that.[52] The anthropomorphic shape, in this specific context, functions as the "gross body" of Shiva in the Mahabharata.[52] It is a superabundant evocation of fierce potency on a cosmic scale, although it states crassly phallic.[52] Doniger further finds that Shiva was called by many names, including Rudra or the Lord of the Mountain.[62] Chapter 10.17 of the Mahabharata also refers to the word sthanu in the sense of an "inanimate pillar" as well as a "name of Shiva, signifying the immobile, ascetic, desexualized form of the lingam", as it recites the legend involving Shiva, Brahma and Prajapati.[62][86] This mythology weaves two polarities, one where the lingam represents the potentially procreative phallus (fertile lingam) and its opposite "a pillar-like renouncer of sexuality" (ascetic lingam), states Doniger.[62]

Puranas

According to Shiva Purana, the legend about the origin of the phallic form of Shiva is that some brahmin devotees of Shiva were highly engrossed in the meditation of Shiva. In the meantime, Shiva came in a hideous naked ascetic form with ashes smeared all over his body holding his phallus, to test the devotion of his devotees. The wives of the sages were scared at this sight but some embraced the holy ascetic. Although Shiva put them to test, the sages and wives did not recognize him.[87] The sages were stupefied and deluded by Śiva’s power of illusion, māyā,[87][88] became infuriated at this sight and cursed ascetic form of Shiva[88]

“Estás actuando de manera pervertida. Esto viola el camino védico. Por lo tanto, deja que tu pene caiga al suelo ".

Although the sages were also ascetics, only because they observed established conventions, they failed when Shiva tested them with his outrageous ways.[87] The purpose of Shiva's visit to the hermitage, the place where the sages were living with their wives, was to enlighten the false sages by allowing them to humiliate him.[89] But the sages were lost in anger, but Shiva allowed himself to be humiliated in the image that met the eye of the sages.[89] Even though Shiva excited some of them as the source of their desire, they were unable to see him as the killer of desires.[90] Although Shiva revealed his true nature by his dance (Tandava), yet so great was his power of illusion (māyā ), los sabios engañados no lo reconocieron. [90] Ese falo que caía quemó todo por delante; donde quiera que fue, comenzó a quemar todo lo que había allí. Fue a los tres mundos hindúes ( infierno , cielo , tierra ). Todos los mundos y la gente estaban angustiados. Los sabios no pudieron reconocerlo como Shiva y buscaron refugio de Brahma .

Brahma answered that they should pray to Parvati to assume a form of vaginal passage, and perform a procedure reciting vedic mantras and decorating the penis with flowers etc, so that the penis would become steady. As the phallus was held by Parvati in that form, an auspicion arrow formed. The pedestal shaped as the vagina and the phallus fixed therein are symbolic of the eternal creative forces personified as Śivā and Śiva. After the procedure was completed, the penis became static. This phallus was known as "hatesa" and "Siva Siva".[88] In one version of the story found in Vamana Purana, Shiva's visit to the hermitage in Deodar forests was an act of grace at Parvati's request.[87] The Shiva Purana also describes the origin of the lingam, known as Shiva-linga, as the beginning-less and endless cosmic pillar (Stambha) of fire, the cause of all causes. Lord Shiva is pictured as emerging from the lingam – the cosmic pillar of fire – proving his superiority over the gods Brahma and Vishnu.it also describes right way to worship Shiva linga in its 11th chapter in detail [91][92][93] This is known as Lingodbhava. The Linga Purana also supports this interpretation of lingam as a cosmic pillar, symbolizing the infinite nature of Shiva.[93][43][60] According to the Linga Purana, the lingam is a complete symbolic representation of the formless Universe Bearer – the oval-shaped stone is the symbol of the Universe, and the bottom base represents the Supreme Power that holds the entire Universe in it.[35] A similar interpretation is also found in the Skanda Purana: "The endless sky (that great void which contains the entire universe) is the Linga, the Earth is its base. At the end of time the entire universe and all the Gods finally merge in the Linga itself."[94] In the Linga Purana, an Atharvaveda hymn is expanded with stories about the great Stambha and the supreme nature of Mahâdeva (the Great God, Shiva).[60]

Other literature

A linga-yoni in Nepal carved with four seated Buddhas.

In early Sanskrit medical texts, linga means "symptom, signs" and plays a key role in the diagnosis of a sickness, the disease.[95][96][97] The author of classical Sanskrit grammar treatise, Panini, states that the verbal root ling which means "paint, variegate", has the sense "that which paints, variegates, characterizes". Panini as well as Patanjali additionally mention lingam with the contextual meaning of the "gender".[98][99]

In the Vaisheshika Sutras, it means "proof or evidence", as a conditionally sufficient mark or sign. This Vaisheshika theory is adopted in the early Sanskrit medical literature.[17] Like the Upanishads, where linga means "mark, sign, characteristic", the texts of the Nyaya school of Hindu philosophy use linga in the same sense.[100][101] In the Samkhya sutras, and in Gaudapada's commentary on Samkhyakarika, the term linga has many contextual meanings such as in verses 1.124.136, 3.9.16 and 5.21.61, as it develops its theory of the nature of Atman (Self) and Sarira (body, prakriti) and its proposed mechanism of rebirth.[18][102] In the Purva Mimamsa Sutra and the Vedanta sutra, as well as the commentaries on them, the term linga appears quite often, particularly in the form of "lingadarsanacca" as a form of citing or referencing prior Hindu literature. This phrase connotes "[we have found an] indicative sign", such as the "indicative sign is in a Vedic passage".[103]

According to Doniger, there is persuasive evidence in later Sanskrit literature that the early Indians associated the lingam icon with the male sexual organ;[104] the 11th-century Kashmir text Narmamala by Kshemendra on satire and fiction writing explains his ideas on parallelism with divine lingam and human lingam in a sexual context. Various Shaiva texts, such as the Skanda Purana in section 1.8 states that all creatures have the signs of Shiva or Shakti through their lingam (male sexual organ) or pindi (female sexual organ).[104][105] According to Doniger, a part of the literature corpus regards lingam to be the phallus of Shiva, while another group of texts does not. Sexuality in the former is inherently sacred and spiritual, while the latter emphasizes the ascetic nature of Shiva and renunciation to be spiritual symbolism of lingam. This tension between the pursuit of spirituality through householder lifestyle and the pursuit of renunciate sannyasi lifestyle is historic, reflects the different interpretations of the lingam and what lingam worship means to its devotees. It remains a continuing debate within Hinduism to this day, states Doniger.[104] To one group, it is a part of Shiva's body and symbolically saguna Shiva (he in a physical form with attributes). To the other group, it is an abstract symbol of nirguna Shiva (he in the universal Absolute Reality, formless, without attributes).[104] In Tamil Shaiva tradition, for example, the common term for lingam is kuRi or "sign, mark" which is asexual.[104] Similarly, in Lingayatism tradition, the lingam is a spiritual symbol and "was never said to have any sexual connotations", according to Doniger.[104] To some Shaivites, it symbolizes the axis of the universe.[106]

The term linga also appears in Buddhist and Jaina literature, where it means "sign, evidence" in one context, or "subtle body" with sexual connotations in another.[107][note 7]

Literatura orientalista

Parte de una serie sobre
Shaivismo
Deidades
Paramashiva
(ser supremo)
Shiva
  • Sadasiva
  • Bhairava
  • Rudra
  • Virabhadra
Shakti
  • Parvati
  • Sati
  • Durga
  • Kali
  • Ganesha
  • Murugan
  • Sastha
  • Formas de Shiva
  • Otros
Escrituras y textos
  • Vedas
  • Agama - Tantras
  • Shivasutras
  • Tirumurai
  • Vachanas
  • Svetasvatara
Filosofía
Tres componentes
  • Pati
  • Pashu
  • Pasam
Tres esclavitudes
  • Anava
  • Karma
  • maya
otros aspectos
  • 36 Tattvas
  • Yoga
  • Satkaryavada
  • Abhasavada
  • Svatantrya
  • Aham
Practicas
  • Vibhuti
  • Rudraksha
  • Panchakshara
  • Bilva
  • Maha Shivaratri
  • Yamas - Niyamas
  • Guru - Linga - Jangam
Escuelas
Ati marga
  • Pashupata
  • Kalamukha
  • Kapalika
Mantra marga

Saiddhantika

  • Siddhantismo

No Saiddhantika

  • Shivaísmo de Cachemira
    • Pratyabhijna
    • Vama
    • Dakshina
    • Kaula: Trika-Yamala-Kubjika-Netra
Others
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The colonial era Orientalists and Christian missionaries, raised in the Victorian mold where sex and sexual imagery were a taboo subject, were shocked by and were hostile to the lingam-yoni iconography and reverence they witnessed.[9][108][109] The 19th and early 20th-century colonial and missionary literature described lingam-yoni, and related theology as obscene, corrupt, licentious, hyper-sexualized, puerile, impure, demonic and a culture that had become too feminine and dissolute.[9][110][111] To the Hindus, particularly the Shaivites, these icons and ideas were the abstract, a symbol of the entirety of creation and spirituality.[9] The colonial disparagement in part triggered the opposite reaction from Bengali nationalists, who more explicitly valorised the feminine. Swami Vivekananda called for the revival of the Mother Goddess as a feminine force, inviting his countrymen to "proclaim her to all the world with the voice of peace and benediction".[110]

According to Wendy Doniger, the terms lingam and yoni became explicitly associated with human sexual organs in the western imagination after the widely popular first Kamasutra translation by Sir Richard Burton in 1883.[112] In his translation, even though the original Sanskrit text does not use the words lingam or yoni for sexual organs, and almost always uses other terms, Burton adroitly avoided being viewed as obscene to the Victorian mindset by avoiding the use of words such as penis, vulva, vagina and other direct or indirect sexual terms in the Sanskrit text to discuss sex, sexual relationships and human sexual positions. Burton used the terms lingam and yoni instead throughout the translation.[112] This conscious and incorrect word substitution, states Doniger, thus served as an Orientalist means to "anthropologize sex, distance it, make it safe for English readers by assuring them, or pretending to assure them, that the text was not about real sexual organs, their sexual organs, but merely about the appendages of weird, dark people far away."[112] Similar Orientalist literature of the Christian missionaries and the British era, states Doniger, stripped all spiritual meanings and insisted on the Victorian vulgar interpretation only, which had "a negative effect on the self-perception that Hindus had of their own bodies" and they became "ashamed of the more sensual aspects of their own religious literature".[113] Some contemporary Hindus, states Doniger, in their passion to spiritualize Hinduism and for their Hindutva campaign have sought to sanitize the historic earthly sexual meanings, and insist on the abstract spiritual meaning only.[113]

Muslim rule

After the 11th-century invasion of the subcontinent by Islamic armies, the iconoclast Muslims considered the lingam to be idolatrous representations of the male sexual organ. They took pride in destroying as many lingams and Shiva temples as they could, reusing them to build steps for mosques,[note 8] in a region stretching from Somanath (Gujarat) to Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh) to Chidambaram (Tamil Nadu), states Doniger.[114][115]

Iconography and worship

Linga-yoni worship in different ways; Left: river, Right: temple.

The traditional lingam rituals in major Shiva temples includes offerings of flowers, grass, dried rice, fruits, leaves, water and a milk bath.[1] Priests chant hymns, while the devotees go the sanctum for a darshana followed by a clockwise circumambulation of the sanctum.[1] On the sanctum walls, typically are reliefs of Dakshinamurti, Brahma and Vishnu. Often, near the sanctum are other shrines, particularly for Shakti (Durga), Ganesha and Murugan (Kartikeya). In the Hindu tradition, special pilgrimage sites include those where natural lingams are found in the form of cylindrical rocks or ice or rocky hill. These are called Svayambhuva lingam, and about 70 of these are known on the Indian subcontinent, the most significant being one in Kashi (Varanasi) followed by Prayaga, Naimisha and Gaya.[1][116]

The historic lingam iconography has included:

  • Mukhalingam, where the lingam has the face of Shiva carved on it.[117][118] An Ekmukha lingam has just one face, Chaturmukha lingam has four faces in the cardinal directions, while a Panchamukha lingam has a total of five (the fifth is on the top) and represents Sadashiva.[119][120] Among the mukha-lingam varieties, the four face version are more common.[121]
  • Ashtottara-sata linga, where 108 miniature lingas are carved on the pujabhaga (main linga) following certain geometric principles.[122]
Lingam iconography exists in many forms, and their design are described in the Agama texts. Left: a 5th-century Mukha-linga (with face), Right: a Sahasra-linga (with 1001 carvings).
  • Sahasra linga, where 1001 miniature lingas are carved on the pujabhaga (main linga) following certain geometric principles (set in 99 vertical lines, 11 horizontal).[123]
  • Dhara linga, where lingas have five to sixty four fluted facets, with prime numbers and multiples of four particularly favored.[124]
  • Lingodbhavamurti, where Shiva is seen as emerging from within a fiery lingam.[1] On top of this icon is sometimes a relief of a swan or goose representing Brahma, and a boar at the bottom representing the Varaha avatar of Vishnu. This reflects the Shaiva legend describing a competition between Brahma, Shiva and Vishnu, as to who has priority and superiority.[1]

A lingam may be made of clay (mrinmaya), metal (lohaja), precious stone (ratnaja), wood (daruja), stone (sailaja, most common), or a disposal material (kshanika).[31] The construction method, proportions and design is described in Shaiva Agama texts.[31] The lingam is typically set in the center of a pindika (also called yoni or pithas, symbolizing Shakti). A pindika may be circular, square, octagonal, hexagonal, duodecagonal, sixteen sided, elliptical, triangular or another shape.[125] Some lingams are miniaturized and they are carried on one's person, such as by Lingayats in a necklace. These are called chala-lingams.[31] The Hindu temple design manuals recommend geometric ratios for the linga, the sanctum and the various architectural features of the temple according to certain mathematical rules it considers perfect and sacred.[126] Anthropologist Christopher John Fuller states that although most sculpted images (murtis) are anthropomorphic or theriomorphic, the aniconic Shiva Linga is an important exception.[127]

According to Shaiva Siddhanta, the linga is the ideal substrate in which the worshipper should install and worship the five-faced and ten-armed Sadāśiva, the form of Shiva who is the focal divinity of that school of Shaivism.[128]

Los diversos estilos de iconografía lingam se encuentran en el subcontinente indio y el sureste de Asia. [129] [130]

Lingayatismo

Los Lingayats llevan constantemente un collar con un colgante que contiene linga. [131]

Los lingayats , una secta de la tradición religiosa shaivita en la India, usan un linga miniaturizado llamado istalinga . [132] Inicialmente conocido como Veerashaivas (adoradores heroicos de Shiva), ya que los seguidores de esta fe del siglo XVIII se conocen como Lingayats . [133] Esta tradición se originó en Karnataka alrededor del siglo XII. [7] [134] El lingayatismo se deriva del término linga y el sufijo ayta . [135] El término Lingayat se basa en la práctica de ambos sexos de Lingayats que usan un iṣṭaliṅga (también llamado karasthala-linga) contained inside a box with a necklace all the time. The istalinga is a personalized and miniature oval-shaped linga and an emblem of their faith symbolising Parashiva, the absolute reality and their spirituality.[135][136] It is viewed as a "living, moving" divinity within the Lingayat devotee. Everyday, the devotee removes this personal linga from its box, places it in left palm, offers puja and then meditates about becoming one with the linga, in his or her journey towards the atma-linga.[137]

Pilgrimage sites

An ice lingam at Amarnath in the western Himalayas forms every winter from ice dripping on the floor of a cave and freezing like a stalagmite. It is very popular with pilgrims.[138]

Left:Sphatika (quartz) lingam illuminated by laser at Kadavul Temple in the United States; Right: Ice Lingam in the cave at the Amarnath Temple, Kashmir.

En el templo de Kadavul , se instala un lingam Sphatika (cuarzo) formado naturalmente de 700 libras y 3 pies de altura . En el futuro, este lingam de cristal se alojará en el Templo de Iraivan . Se afirma como uno de los lingams sphatika autoformados ( Swayambhu ) más grandes conocidos . [139] [140] Las escrituras hindúes clasifican al cristal como la forma más elevada del lingam de Siva. [141]

Shivling, 6,543 metres (21,467 ft), is a mountain in Uttarakhand (the Garhwal region of Himalayas). It arises as a sheer pyramid above the snout of the Gangotri Glacier. The mountain resembles a Shiva lingam when viewed from certain angles, especially when travelling or trekking from Gangotri to Gomukh as part of a traditional Hindu pilgrimage.[citation needed]

A lingam is also the basis for the formation legend (and name) of the Borra Caves in Andhra Pradesh.[citation needed]

Banalinga are the lingam which are found on the bed of the Narmada river.[citation needed]

Lesser known Bhooteshwarnath Mahadeva in Gariaband district of Chhattisgarh is a rock Shivlinga and said to be the Largest Natural Shivlinga in the world.,[142] whose height is increasing with each passing year.[143][144]

The tallest Shiva lingam in the world is located at Chenkal village in Thiruvananthapuram district in the state of Kerala, India.[145]

Gallery

  • Linga inside a railing (left), being worshipped by Gandharvas winged creatures. Art of Mathura, circa 100 BCE.[146]

  • Shiva Linga worshipped by Kushan devotees, circa 2nd century CE

  • Lingodbhava (Chola period)

  • Lingodbhava (período Chola)

  • Badavlinga, Hampi (Imperio Vijayanagara)

  • 8 enfrentó a Shivlingam en el templo de Pashupatinath en Mandsaur , Madhya Pradesh

  • Linga de roca natural, Arunachal Pradesh

  • Un Mukhalinga de cuatro caras del siglo X , Nepal

  • Sesenta y cuatro lingams ( Nepal )

  • Una placa linga-yoni del siglo XI con un adorador (Nepal)

  • Lingam del período de Angkor , provincia de Battambang (Camboya)

  • Linga-yoni, Java ( Indonesia )

  • Lingam de cobre en el santuario de Cát Tiên , Vietnam

  • Una jatalinga con yoni (Champa, Vietnam)

  • Un lingam en los templos de Katas Raj en el norte de Pakistán

  • Ganesha y Shiva-linga, Chiang Rai, Tailandia

Ver también

  • Banalinga
  • Iconografía hindú
  • Jyotirlinga
  • Lingayatismo
  • Mukhalingaj
  • Lingam de Gudimallam
  • Pancharamas
  • Shaligram
  • Spatika Lingam

Notas

  1. ^ a b The representation of the phallic shape at Gudimallam Lingam connotes the very opposite in this context.[147] It contextualize "seminal retention" and practice of celibacy (Brahmacarya) (illustration of Urdhva Retas),[71][69][80][148] and represents Shiva as "he stands for complete control of the senses, and for the supreme carnal renunciation".[147]
  2. ^ This view is shared by K.R. Subramanian, who writes that some Buddhist stupas have been worshipped by Tamil Saivites because they believe it is a Shivalinga, and some ancient stupa sculptures from Amaravati and Jaggayyapeta look so much like a linga that anyone would mistake them for one.[44]
  3. ^ The form of fire, which exists in the kindling stick in a latent form, may not be seen, yet its linga is not destroyed but be seized again by another kindling stick.[2] Fire in its latent condition, unkindled, the potential of fire, its imperceptible essence, is the liūga of fire, in contrast with and indispensable to its visible form (Rūpa).[2]
  4. ^ Furthermore, the phallic shape, standing erect, always negates its function as an organ of procreation. Rather, the shape or pictorial representation is conveying that, the seed was channeled upward, not ejected for the sake of generation, but was reversed, retained and absorbed for regeneration as creative energy.[74]
  5. ^ This linga is likely a dedication memorial stone according to the inscription which states, "The Linga of the sons of Khajahuti, was dedicated by Nagasiri, the son of Vasethi. May the deity be pleased."[77] Bloch objected to "Linga of the sons" interpretation, stating it made no sense. Other scholars maintain that to be a cryptic epigraphic reference to "worshipped by", given the mention of "deity" later in the inscription.[78][79]
  6. ^ In the practice of seminal retention through self-discipline and Sādhanā, the mind is stirred, but not by external stimuli, but the result of realisation of true nature of the Self in the path of liberation (moksha). However, due to lack of understanding of the iconography of Lingam, the representation is often misunderstood.[80][69]
  7. ^ Examples of this usage include the Laṅkāvatāra Sūtra in Buddhism, and Sukhlalji's bhasya on Tattvarthasutra in Jainism.[107]
  8. ^ Later Doniger states that, Ismamic invaders not only destroyed Shiva temples, but also Gurukulas, such as Nalanda, Ram temples, such as the ones in Ayodhya, Jain temples, and built Mosques on top of the Hindu temples, such as Babri Masjid.

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  • Blake Michael, R. (1992), The Origins of Vīraśaiva Sects: A Typological Analysis of Ritual and Associational Patterns in the Śūnyasaṃpādane, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0776-1
  • Chakravarti, Mahadev. The Concept of Rudra-Śiva Through the Ages, Delhi: Motilal Banarasidass (1986), ISBN 8120800532.
  • Dalal, Roshen (2010), The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths, Penguin Books, ISBN 978-0-14-341517-6
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  • Doniger, Wendy (2011), "God's Body, or, The Lingam Made Flesh: Conflicts over the Representation of the Sexual Body of the Hindu God Shiva", Soc. Res. Social Research, 78 (2): 485–508, ISSN 0037-783X, JSTOR 23347187, OCLC 772197753
  • Drabu, V.N. Śaivāgamas: A Study in the Socio-economic Ideas and Institutions of Kashmir (200 B.C. to A.D. 700), New Delhi: Indus Publishing (1990), ISBN 8185182388.
  • Kramrisch, Stella (1988). The Presence of Siva. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 9788120804913.
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External links

  • Some interesting Linga images from Kalanjara and Ajaigarh, SK Sullerey (1980)
  • O, that Linga!, Alex Wayman (1987)
  • Linga and Yoni worship, Urmila Agrawal (1995)
  • A note on the Linga with Sakti images in Bengal Art, KD Gupta (2011)
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