Skandhas ( sánscrito ) o khandhas ( Pāḷi ) significa "montones, agregados, colecciones, agrupaciones". [1] En el budismo , se refiere a los cinco agregados del apego ( Pañcupādānakkhandhā ), los cinco factores materiales y mentales que participan en el aumento del deseo y el apego. También se explican como los cinco factores que constituyen y explican la persona y la personalidad de un ser sensible, [2] [3] [4] pero esta es una interpretación posterior en respuesta al esencialismo sarvastivadin .
Traducciones de skandha | |
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inglés | agregado, masa, montón |
sánscrito | स्कन्ध (skandha) |
Pali | खन्ध (khandha) |
bengalí | স্কন্ধ (skandha) |
birmano | ခန် ဓာ (ငါးပါး)။ ( MLCTS : kʰàɰ̃dà ) |
chino | 蘊(T) /蕴(S) ( Pinyin : yùn ) |
japonés | 蘊 ( Rōmaji : un ) |
Jemer | បញ្ចក្ខន្ធ |
coreano | 온 ( RR : en ) |
mongol | ᠴᠣᠭᠴᠠᠰ ( tsogtsas ) |
Shan | ၶၼ်ႇ ထႃႇ ( [khan2 thaa2] ) |
Cingalés | ස්කන්ධ (skandha) |
Tibetano | ཕུང་ པོ་ ( phung po ) |
tailandés | ขันธ์ |
vietnamita | Ngũ uẩn |
Glosario de budismo |
Los cinco agregados o montones son: forma (o imagen material, impresión) ( rupa ), sensaciones (o sentimientos, recibidos de la forma) ( vedana ), percepciones ( samjna ), actividad o formaciones mentales ( sankhara ) y conciencia ( vijnana ). . [5] [6] [7]
En la tradición Theravada , el sufrimiento surge cuando uno se identifica o se aferra a los agregados. Este sufrimiento se extingue al renunciar a los apegos a los agregados. La tradición Mahayana afirma que la naturaleza de todos los agregados está intrínsecamente vacía de existencia independiente .
Etimología
Skandha (स्कन्ध) es una palabra sánscrita que significa "multitud, cantidad, agregado", generalmente en el contexto de cuerpo, tronco, tallo, objeto denso observado empíricamente o cualquier cosa de volumen verificable con los sentidos. [1] [8] El término aparece en la literatura védica.
La palabra equivalente en Pali Khandha (a veces deletreada como Kkhanda ) [3] aparece ampliamente en el canon Pali donde, según Rhys Davids y William Stede, significa "volumen del cuerpo, agregado, montón, material recolectado a granel" en un contexto, todo lo que se engloba bajo, agrupaciones "en algunos contextos, y particularmente como" los elementos o sustratos de la existencia sensorial, agregados sensoriales que condicionan la aparición de la vida en cualquier forma ". [1] [nota 1] Paul Williams y col. traducir skandha como "montón, agregado", indicando que se refiere a la explicación de la estructura psicofísica de cualquier ser. [10]
Johannes Bronkhorst traduce skandha como "agregados". [11] Damien Keown y Charles Prebish afirman que skandha es phung po en tibetano, y los términos significan "colecciones o agregados o paquetes". [12]
Descripción
El Buda enseña en el Canon Pali los cinco agregados de la siguiente manera:
- "forma" o "materia" [nota 2] (Skt., Pāli रूप rūpa ; Tib. gzugs ): materia, cuerpo o "forma material" de un ser o cualquier existencia. [5] [13] Los textos budistas afirman que la rupa de cualquier persona, ser sensible y objeto se compone de cuatro elementos o fuerzas básicos: tierra (solidez), agua (cohesión), fuego (calor) y viento (movimiento). [3]
- "sensación" o "sentimiento" (Skt., Pāli वेदना vedanā ; Tib. tshor-ba ): experiencia sensorial de un objeto. [3] Es agradable, desagradable o neutral. [nota 3] [nota 4]
- "percepción" [nota 5] (Skt. संज्ञा saṃjñā , Pāli सञ्ञा saññā , Tib. 'du-shes ): proceso sensorial y mental que registra, reconoce y etiqueta (por ejemplo, la forma de un árbol, el color verde, la emoción de temor). [13]
- "formaciones mentales" (Skt. संस्कार saṃskāra , Pāli सङ्खार saṅkhāra , Tib. 'du-byed ): "actividades constructivas" , [13] "cosas condicionadas" , "volición" , "actividades kármicas"; todo tipo de improntas mentales y condicionamientos provocados por un objeto. [14] [15] [nota 6] Incluye cualquier proceso que hace que una persona inicie una acción o actúe. [13]
- "conciencia" (Skt. विज्ञान vijñāna , Pāli विञ्ञाण viññāṇa , Tib. rnam-par-shes-pa ): "discriminación" o "discernimiento" [nota 7] . Conciencia de un objeto y discriminación de sus componentes y aspectos, y es de seis tipos, afirma Peter Harvey. [13] La literatura budista analiza este skandha como,
- En los Nikayas / Āgamas : conocimiento, [16] [nota 8] aquello que discierne. [17] [nota 9]
- En el Abhidhamma: una serie de actos de conocimiento discretos interconectados que cambian rápidamente. [nota 10]
- En algunas fuentes Mahayana: la base que sustenta toda experiencia. [nota 11]
Interpretación
Agregados de personalidad
Los cinco agregados se interpretan a menudo en la tradición posterior como una explicación de los constituyentes de la persona y la personalidad, [18] [19] y "la lista de agregados se volvió extremadamente importante para el desarrollo posterior de la enseñanza". [19] Según esta interpretación, en cada skandha - cuerpo, sensaciones, percepciones, formaciones mentales y conciencia - hay vacío y no hay sustancia. [3] [11]
Según Damien Keown y Charles Prebish, skandha en el contexto del budismo canónico afirma que "la noción de un yo se superpone innecesariamente a cinco skandha" de un fenómeno o un ser vivo. [12] La doctrina skandha , afirma Matthew MacKenzie, es una forma de antirrealismo sobre la realidad cotidiana, incluidas las personas, y presenta una alternativa a las "visiones sustancialistas del yo". [20] Es un reduccionismo budista de todo lo percibido, cada persona y personalidad como un "conjunto, montón" de entidades compuestas sin esencia. [20]
Según Harvey, los cinco skandhas dan lugar a un sentido de personalidad, [21] pero son dukkha , impermanentes y sin un yo o esencia duraderos. [3] [nota 12] Cada agregado es un objeto de aferrarse (aferrarse), en la raíz de la autoidentificación como "yo, yo, yo mismo". [3] Según Harvey, darse cuenta de la naturaleza real de los skandhas , tanto en términos de impermanencia como de no-yo, es necesario para el nirvana. [29] [nota 13] Este 'vacío de la personalidad' se puede encontrar en las descripciones del estado iluminado y perfeccionado de Arhat y Tathagata , [31] donde ya no hay ninguna identificación con los cinco skandhas. [nota 14]
Este punto de vista "sin esencia" ha sido una fuente de preguntas sostenidas, desacuerdos importantes y comentarios desde la antigüedad, por parte de religiones indias no budistas, así como dentro de las tradiciones budistas. [20] [32] [33] El uso del concepto de skandhas para explicar el yo es exclusivo del budismo entre las principales religiones indias, [34] [35] y debe verse en los contextos de polémica sobre las enseñanzas Sarvastivada de que "los fenómenos "o sus componentes son reales. [36] Contrasta con la premisa del hinduismo y el jainismo de que un ser vivo tiene un alma eterna o un yo metafísico. [34] [35]
David Kalupahana explica además que el individuo se considera irreal, pero los skandha se consideran reales en algunos textos budistas tempranos, pero los skandha también se consideran irreales y no sustanciales en muchos otros textos budistas Nikaya y Āgama. [37]
Agregados de experiencia y aferramiento
Según Thanissaro , el Buda nunca trató de definir qué es una "persona", aunque los eruditos tienden a acercarse a los skandhas como una descripción de los componentes de la persona. [18] [nota 15] Agrega que casi cualquier maestro de meditación budista lo explica de esa manera, como lo han hecho incluso los comentarios budistas de aproximadamente el siglo I d.C. en adelante. En opinión de Thanissaro, esto es incorrecto y sugiere que skandha debería verse como actividades que causan sufrimiento, pero cuyo funcionamiento malsano puede interrumpirse. [18]
Rupert Gethin también señala que los cinco skandhas no son simplemente "el análisis budista del hombre", sino "cinco aspectos de la experiencia del mundo de un ser individual [...] que abarca tanto el aferramiento como todo lo que se comprende". [39] [nota 16]
Boisvert afirma que "muchos eruditos se han referido a los cinco agregados en sus trabajos sobre el budismo, [pero] ninguno ha explicado a fondo sus respectivas funciones". [40] Según Boisvert, los cinco agregados y el origen dependiente están estrechamente relacionados, lo que explica el proceso que nos une al samsara . [41] Boisvert señala que el pancha-upadanakkhanda no incorpora toda la experiencia humana. [42] Vedana puede transformarse en niramisa o nekkhamma-sita vedana , vedana que no es dañino, o en amisa o gehasita vedana , un "tipo de sensación [que] puede actuar como un agente que provoca el futuro surgimiento del deseo y la aversión . " [40] Esto está determinado por sanna . [40] Según Boisvert, "no todo sanna pertenece al sanna-skandha ". El sanna sano reconoce las tres marcas de la existencia ( dukkha , anatta , anicca ) y no pertenecen al sanna-skandha . El sanna malsano no "conduce a la intuición", y sin el sanna adecuado , "es probable que la persona genere anhelo, apego y devenir". [43] Al igual que con sanna , "no todos los sankhara pertenecen al sankharaskandha ", ya que no todos los sankhara producen efectos futuros. [43]
Según Johannes Bronkhorst, la noción de que los cinco agregados no son el yo debe considerarse a la luz de los debates sobre el "conocimiento liberador", el conocimiento de Atman que las tradiciones védicas consideraban liberador. [44] Bronkhorst señala que "el conocimiento del yo no juega un papel útil en el camino de Buda hacia la liberación". [45] [nota 17] Lo importante es no captar las formas, sonidos, olores, sabores, objetos y propiedades mentales que se perciben con los seis órganos de los sentidos (estos incluyen la mente como el sexto órgano de los sentidos). [46] La percepción de que los agregados no son autoayuda para soltar este aferramiento. [45] [nota 18]
Miri Albahari también se opone a la comprensión habitual de los skandhas como denotando la ausencia de cualquier "yo". Albahari ha argumentado que los khandhas no constituyen necesariamente la totalidad de la experiencia humana, y que el concepto hindú de Ātman (alma eterna) no está explícitamente negado por Pāli Canon. [47] Según Albani, "anattā se entiende mejor como una estrategia práctica que como una doctrina metafísica". [47] Para Albahari, Nibbāna es una parte siempre presente de la naturaleza humana, que gradualmente se "descubre" por el cese de la ignorancia.
En Theravada Abhidhamma
Los Cinco Agregados ( pañca khandha ) según el Canon Pali . | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Fuente: MN 109 (Thanissaro, 2001) | detalles del diagrama |
Las primeras escuelas budistas desarrollaron análisis detallados y descripciones generales de las enseñanzas que se encuentran en los sutras, llamados Abhidharma . Cada escuela desarrolló su propio Abhidharma. El más conocido hoy en día es el Theravāda Abhidhamma , pero el Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma fue históricamente muy influyente y se ha conservado en parte en el Āgama chino.
Seis bases de los sentidos
Las bases de los sentidos internos y externos juntos forman las "seis bases de los sentidos". En esta descripción, que se encuentra en textos como Salayatana samyutta , la unión de un objeto y un órgano sensorial da como resultado el surgimiento de la conciencia correspondiente.
Según Bhikkhu Bodhi , la tradición Theravada enseña que las seis bases de los sentidos acomodan "todos los factores de la existencia", es "el todo", y "aparte del cual no existe nada en absoluto", [48] y "están vacíos de un el yo y lo que es del yo ". [49] [nota 19]
Los suttas mismos no describen esto como una alternativa de los skandhas; es en el Abhidhamma, esforzándose por "un sistema único que lo incluya todo" [51] que los cinco agregados y las seis bases de los sentidos están explícitamente conectados: [51]
- Las primeras cinco bases de los sentidos externos (forma visible, sonido, olfato, gusto y tacto) y las primeras cinco bases de los sentidos internos (ojo, oído, nariz, lengua y cuerpo) forman parte del agregado de la forma;
- El objeto sensorial mental (es decir, los objetos mentales) se superponen a los primeros cuatro agregados (forma, sentimiento, percepción y formación);
- El órgano sensorial mental (la mente) es comparable al agregado de la conciencia.
Bodhi afirma que las seis bases de los sentidos es una visión "vertical" de las experiencias humanas, mientras que los agregados son una visión "horizontal" (temporal). [52] La práctica de meditación budista Theravada basada en los sentidos tiene como objetivo eliminar las cogniciones distorsionadas, como las influenciadas por los antojos, presunciones y opiniones, así como "desarraigar todas las concepciones en todas sus formas". [53]
Dieciocho Dhātus y cuatro Paramatthas
Los dieciocho dhātus [nota 20] —seis bases externas, seis bases internas y seis conciencias— funcionan a través de los cinco agregados. Estos dhātus se pueden organizar en seis tríadas, cada tríada compuesta por un objeto sensorial, un órgano sensorial y la conciencia sensorial. [nota 21]
El Abhidhamma y los textos pali poscanónicos crean un metaesquema para las concepciones del Sutta Pitaka de los agregados, las bases de los sentidos y los dhattus (elementos). [55] Este metaesquema se conoce como los cuatro paramatthas o realidades últimas, tres condicionadas, una incondicionada:
- Fenómenos materiales (rūpa, forma)
- Mente o conciencia (Citta)
- Factores mentales (Cetasikas: la sensación, percepción y formación de los factores nama)
- Nibbāna
Doce Nidanas
Los Doce Nidanas es una lista lineal de doce elementos de las enseñanzas budistas que surgen en función del enlace anterior. Si bien esta lista puede interpretarse como una descripción de los procesos que dan lugar al renacimiento, en esencia describe el surgimiento de dukkha como un proceso psicológico, sin la participación de un atman. [56] [57] Los académicos lo consideran una síntesis posterior de varias listas más antiguas. [58] [59] [60] [61] [56] [62] Los primeros cuatro vínculos pueden ser una burla de la cosmogonía Védica-Brahmánica, como se describe en el Himno de la Creación del Veda X, 129 y el Brihadaranyaka Upanishad . [57] [61] [62] [63] [64] [65] Estos se integraron con una lista ramificada que describe el condicionamiento de los procesos mentales, [60] [56] [62] similar a los cinco skandhas. [66] Con el tiempo, esta lista ramificada se convirtió en la cadena estándar de doce veces como una lista lineal. [60] [67]
Según Boisvert, "la función de cada uno de los agregados, en su orden respectivo, puede correlacionarse directamente con la teoría del origen dependiente, especialmente con los ocho enlaces intermedios". [68] Cuatro de los cinco agregados se mencionan explícitamente en la siguiente secuencia, pero en un orden diferente al de la lista de agregados, que concluye con viññāṇa • vijñāna : [69]
- las formaciones mentales ( saṅkhāra • saṃskāra ) condicionan la conciencia ( viññāṇa • vijñāna )
- que condiciona el nombre y la forma ( nāma-rūpa )
- que condiciona los precursores ( saḷāyatana , phassa • sparśa ) a sensaciones ( vedanā )
- que a su vez condicionan el deseo ( taṇhā • tṛṣṇā ) y el apego ( upādāna )
- que en última instancia conducen a "toda la masa de sufrimiento" ( kevalassa dukkhakkhandha ). [nota 22]
La interacción entre el modelo de cinco agregados de causalidad inmediata y el modelo de doce nidana de condicionamiento requerido es evidente, por ejemplo, subrayando el papel fundamental que tienen las formaciones mentales tanto en el origen como en el cese del sufrimiento. [nota 23] [nota 24]
Satipatthana
Se cree que la atención plena se aplica a cuatro upassanā (dominios o bases), "observar constantemente la experiencia sensorial para evitar el surgimiento de deseos que impulsarían la experiencia futura en renacimientos", [70] que también se superponen con los skandhas. Los cuatro dominios son: [71]
- atención plena del cuerpo (kaya); [72] [web 1]
- atención plena a los sentimientos o sensaciones ( vedanā ); [73]
- atención plena de la mente o la conciencia ( citta ); [74] y
- atención plena a los dhammās . [75]
Según Grzegorz Polak, los cuatro upassanā han sido mal entendidos por la tradición budista en desarrollo, incluido el Theravada, para referirse a cuatro fundamentos diferentes. Según Polak, los cuatro upassanā no se refieren a cuatro fundamentos diferentes de los que uno debe ser consciente, sino que son una descripción alternativa de los jhanas , que describen cómo se tranquilizan los samskharas : [76]
- las seis bases de los sentidos de las que uno necesita estar consciente ( kāyānupassanā );
- contemplación de vedanās , que surgen con el contacto entre los sentidos y sus objetos ( vedanānupassanā );
- los estados mentales alterados a los que conduce esta práctica (cittānupassanā);
- el desarrollo de los cinco obstáculos a los siete factores de la iluminación ( dhammānupassanā ).
En la tradición Mahayana
El Mahayana se desarrolló a partir de las escuelas tradicionales, introduciendo nuevos textos y poniendo otros énfasis en las enseñanzas, especialmente sunyata y el ideal del Bodhisattva .
India
The Prajnaparamita-teachings developed from the first century BCE onward. It emphasises the "emptiness" of everything that exists. This means that there are no eternally existing "essences", since everything is dependently originated. The skandhas too are dependently originated, and lack any substantial existence. According to Red Pine, the Prajnaparamita texts are a historical reaction to some early Buddhist Abhidhammas. Specifically, it is a response to Sarvastivada teachings that "phenomena" or its constituents are real.[36] The prajnaparamita notion of "emptiness" is also consistent with the Theravada Abhidhamma.[further explanation needed][citation needed]
This is formulated in the Heart Sutra. The Sanskrit version of the "Prajnaparamita Hridaya Sutra" ("Heart Sutra"), which may have been composed in China from Sanskrit texts, and later back-translated into Sanskrit,[note 25] states that the five skandhas are empty of self-existence,[77][note 26][note 27][note 28] and famously states "form is emptiness, emptiness is form[77] The same is true with feelings, perceptions, mental formations and consciousness."[78]
The Madhyamaka-school elaborates on the notion of the middle way. Its basic text is the Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, written by Nagarjuna, who refuted the Sarvastivada conception of reality, which reifies dhammas.[79] The simultaneous non-reification of the self and reification of the skandhas has been viewed by some Buddhist thinkers as highly problematic.[80]
The Yogacara-school further analysed the workings of the mind, elaborated on the concept of nama-rupa and the five skandhas, and developed the notion of the Eight Consciousnesses.
China
Sunyata, in Chinese texts, is "wu", nothingness.[81][82] In these texts, the relation between absolute and relative was a central topic in understanding the Buddhist teachings. The aggregates convey the relative (or conventional) experience of the world by an individual, although Absolute truth is realized through them. Commenting on the Heart Sutra, D.T. Suzuki notes:
When the sutra says that the five Skandhas have the character of emptiness [...], the sense is: no limiting qualities are to be attributed to the Absolute; while it is immanent in all concrete and particular objects, it is not in itself definable.[83]
The Tathāgatagarbha Sutras, treating the idea of the Buddha-nature, developed in India but played a prominent role in China. The tathagatagarbha-sutras, on occasion, speak of the ineffable skandhas of the Buddha (beyond the nature of worldly skandhas and beyond worldly understanding). In the Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra the Buddha tells of how the Buddha's skandhas are in fact eternal and unchanging. The Buddha's skandhas are said to be incomprehensible to unawakened vision.
Tibet
The Vajrayana tradition further develops the aggregates in terms of mahamudra epistemology and tantric reifications.
Referring to mahamudra teachings, Chogyam Trungpa [84] identifies the form aggregate as the "solidification" of ignorance (Pali, avijjā; Skt., avidyā), allowing one to have the illusion of "possessing" ever dynamic and spacious wisdom (Pali, vijjā; Skt. vidyā), and thus being the basis for the creation of a dualistic relationship between "self" and "other."[note 29]
According to Trungpa Rinpoche,[85] the five skandhas are "a set of Buddhist concepts which describe experience as a five-step process" and that "the whole development of the five skandhas...is an attempt on our part to shield ourselves from the truth of our insubstantiality," while "the practice of meditation is to see the transparency of this shield."[86]
Trungpa Rinpoche writes (2001, p. 38):
[S]ome of the details of tantric iconography are developed from abhidharma [that is, in this context, detailed analysis of the aggregates]. Different colors and feelings of this particular consciousness, that particular emotion, are manifested in a particular deity wearing such-and-such a costume, of certain particular colors, holding certain particular sceptres in his hand. Those details are very closely connected with the individualities of particular psychological processes.
Ver también
- Anatta
- Atman (Buddhism)
- Nagarjuna
- Pratitya-samutpada
- Samsara
- Sankhāra
- Schools of Buddhism
- Shunyata
- Tathagatagarbha doctrine
- Ti-lakkhana
- Kosha
Notas
- ^ According to Dalai Lama, skandha means "heap, group, collection or aggregate".[9]
- ^ In Rawson (1991: p.11), the first skandha is defined as: "name and form (Sanskrit nāma-rūpa, Tibetan gzugs)...". In the Pali literature, nāma-rūpa traditionally refers to the first four aggregates, as opposed to the fifth aggregate, consciousness.
- ^ The Pali canon universally identifies that vedana involves the sensing or feeling of something as pleasant, unpleasant or neutral (see, for instance, SN 22). When contemporary authors elaborate on vedana, they define it similarly (see, for instance, Nhat Hanh, 1999, p. 178; Trungpa, 2001, p. 21; and, Trungpa, 2002, p. 126). The one exception is in Trungpa (1976), pp. 20-23, where he states that the "strategies or impluses" of "indifference, passion and aggression" are "part of the third stage [aggregate]," "guided by perception." (This section of Trungpa, 1976, is anthologized in Trungpa, 1999, pp. 55-58.)
- ^ Generally, vedanā is considered to not include "emotions." For example, Bodhi (2000a), p. 80, writes: "The Pali word vedanā does not signify emotion (which appears to be a complex phenomenon involving a variety of concomitant mental factors), but the bare affective quality of an experience, which may be either pleasant, painful or neutral." Perhaps somewhat similarly, Trungpa (1999), p.58, writes: "Consciousness [the fifth aggregate] consists of emotions and irregular thought patterns...."
- ^ Some translate this term as perception although this is typically the translation of pratyakṣa meaning the apprehension of sensibilia and not any subsequent judgement concerning them. The English word conception is more accurate, although this implies less a process and more the static end result (the mental state of holding a concept)), hence discrimination is preferred.
- ^ The Theravada Abhidhamma divides saṅkhāra into fifty mental factors (Bodhi, 2000a, p. 26). Trungpa (2001), pp. 47ff, following the Sarvastivada Abhidharma studied in Mahayana Buddhism, states that there are fifty-one "general types" of samskara.
- ^ Peter Harvey, The Selfless Mind. Curzon Press 1995, page 143-146.
- ^ In commenting on the use of "consciousness" in SN 22.3 [1], Bodhi (2000b), pp. 1046-7, n. 18, states: "The passage confirms the privileged status of consciousness among the five aggregates. While all the aggregates are conditioned phenomena marked by the three characteristics, consciousness serves as the connecting thread of personal continuity through the sequence of rebirths.... The other four aggregates serve as the 'stations for consciousness' (vinnanatthitiyo: see [SN] 22:53-54). Even consciousness, however, is not a self-identical entity but a sequence of dependently arisen occasions of cognizing; see MN I 256-60."
- ^ Harvey writes, "This is in contrast to saññā, which knows by grouping things together, labeling them. This contrast can be seen in terms of the typical objects of these states: colours for saññā (S.III.87), but tastes (S.III.87) or feelings (M.I.292) for viññāṇa. While colours usually be immediately identified, tastes and feelings often need careful consideration to properly identify them: discernment and analysis are needed."
- ^ This conception of consciousness is found in the Theravada Abhidhamma (Bodhi, 2000a, p. 29).
- ^ While not necessarily contradicted by the Nikayas, this is a particularly Mahayana statement. For instance, Nhat Hanh (1999, pp. 180-1) states: "Consciousness here means store consciousness, which is at the base of everything we are, the ground of all of our mental formations." Similarly, Trungpa (2001, pp. 73-4) states that consciousness "is the finally developed state of being that contains all the previous elements.... [C]onsciousness constitutes an immediately available source of occupation for the momentum of the skandhas to feed on."
- ^ * Dukkha: The first Noble Truth states that "in brief, the five bundles of grasping-fuel (upadana-skandha) are painful [dukkha]."[3][22] The five aggregates trigger suffering, pain or unsatisfactoriness. Everything that makes a person is a factor of dukkha, and these in Buddhist thought are not a source of pleasure but of sorrow.[13] Nirvana requires transcendence from all five skandhas and the sense objects.[3]
* Impermanent: they come into being and dissolve.[13][23]
* Anatta: each of the skandhas lacks a self and substantiality.[24] The aggregates are appearances which don't have an essence either separately or together, all that is perceived as an aggregate or a whole has no real existence.[25][20] This is the "non-self" (anatta) doctrine, and it holds that a belief in self is a source of Dukkha (suffering, pain, unsatisfactoriness).[26][27] The explicit denial of substantiality or essence in any of the five skandha appears in the early Buddhist texts: "All form is comparable to foam; all feelings to bubbles; all sensations are mirage-like; dispositions are like the plantain trunk; consciousness is but an illusion: so did the Buddha illustrate [the nature of the aggregates]."[28] - ^ The initial part of the Buddhist practice is purification of each of the above "five aggregates" through meditation, study, ritual and living by virtues, particularly abstaining from mental intoxicants. Ultimately, the practice shifts to considering these as naive, then transcending them to reach the state of realization that there is neither person nor self within, or in any other being, states Harvey, where everyone and everything is without self or substantiality and is a "cluster of changing physical and mental processes".[11][30]
- ^ The physical, the personality factors (skandhas), and any sense of Self or I are a burden which the enlightened individual has dropped, thus becoming a "man of nothing", not clinging to anything internal or external.[31] The perfect state of enlightenment is one without any personality, no "I am" conceit, no physical identification, no intellectual identification, no identification in direct or indirects terms related to any of the five skandhas, because "a tathagata has abandoned the personality factors".[31] No one can find him because he has no "I", self or identity, while his citta expands to infinity; he is beyond the reach of the unenlightened human beings, as well as the army of the Mara (demon of death in Buddhism).[31]
- ^ Adrian Snodgrass (1984) asserts that the term literally means "heap", and the concept refers to the teaching accepted by all Buddhist schools that "the personality is an aggregate of five constituent parts," referring back to older publications from the 1930s to the 1950s.[38]
- ^ Gethin: "To explain the khandhas as the Buddhist analysis of man, as has been the tendency of contemporary scholars, may not be incorrect as far as it goes, yet it is to fix upon one facet of the treatment of the khandhas at the expense of others. Thus A. B. Keith could write, “By a division which ... has certainly no merit, logical or psychological, the individual is divided into five aggregates or groups.” However, the five khandhas, as treated in the nikāyas and early abhidhamma, do not exactly take on the character of a formal theory of the nature of man. The concern is not so much the presentation of an analysis of man as object, but rather the understanding of the nature of conditioned existence from the point of view of the experiencing subject. Thus at the most general level rūpa, vedanā, sañña, and are presented as five aspects of an individual being's experience of the world; each khandha is seen as representing a complex class of phenomena that is continuously arising and falling away in response to processes of consciousness based on the six spheres of sense. They thus become the five upādānakkhandhas, encompassing both grasping and all that is grasped."[39]
- ^ Bronkhorst: "The aim of the teaching of the Buddha is evidently not to discover the real self. On the contrary, the preoccupation with the true nature of the self has to be given up. Only then one is ready to follow the path shown by the Buddha. Seen from this practical point of view, the question as to the existence of the self is of minor importance. The main thing is that knowledge of the self plays no useful role on the Buddha’s path to liberation. In view of the fact that certain non-Buddhist currents asserted a permanent self not subject to change because only knowledge of such a self could be useful to the attainment of liberation, it is probably justified to assume that the Buddha did not accept the existence of such a self."[45]
- ^ Bronkhorst: "Acquiring the insight that the various components of the person are not the self causes a wise and noble listener to turn away from material form, and so on; as a result he becomes free from desire and attains liberation."[45]
- ^ According to Bikkhu Bodhi, the Maha-punnama Sutta, also called The Great Full-moon Night Discourse, describes the impermanence of the aggregates to assert that there is no self, and the right discernment is, "this is not mine, this is not my self, this is not what I am". From Maha-punnama Sutta
[Buddha:] "It's possible that a senseless person — immersed in ignorance, overcome with craving — might think that he could outsmart the Teacher's message in this way: 'So — form is not-self, feeling is not-self, perception is not-self, fabrications are not-self, consciousness is not-self. Then what self will be touched by the actions done by what is not-self?' Now, monks, haven't I trained you in counter-questioning with regard to this & that topic here & there? What do you think — Is form constant or inconstant?" "Inconstant, lord." "And is that which is inconstant easeful or stressful?" "Stressful, lord." "And is it fitting to regard what is inconstant, stressful, subject to change as: 'This is mine. This is my self. This is what I am'?"
[Monks:] "No, lord."
"... Is feeling constant or inconstant?" "Inconstant, lord."...
"... Is perception constant or inconstant?" "Inconstant, lord."...
"... Are fabrications constant or inconstant?" "Inconstant, lord."...
"What do you think, monks — Is consciousness constant or inconstant?" "Inconstant, lord." "And is that which is inconstant easeful or stressful?" "Stressful, lord." "And is it fitting to regard what is inconstant, stressful, subject to change as: 'This is mine. This is my self. This is what I am'?"
"No, lord."
"Thus, monks, any form whatsoever that is past, future, or present; internal or external; blatant or subtle; common or sublime; far or near: every form is to be seen as it actually is with right discernment as: 'This is not mine. This is not my self. This is not what I am.'– Majjhima Nikaya iii 15, Translated by Thanissaro Bhikkhu[50]
- ^ The Pāli word dhātu is used in multiple contexts in the Pāli canon: For instance, Bodhi (2000b), pp. 527-8, identifies four different ways that dhātu is used including in terms of the "eighteen elements" and in terms of "the four primary elements" (catudhātu).
- ^
- The first five sense organs (eye, ear, nose, tongue, body) are derivates of form.
- The sixth sense organ (mind) is part of consciousness.
- The first five sense objects (visible forms, sound, smell, taste, touch) are also derivatives of form.
- The sixth sense object (mental object) includes form, feeling, perception and mental formations.
- The six sense consciousnesses are the basis for consciousness.[54]
- The first five sense organs (eye, ear, nose, tongue, body) are derivates of form.
- ^ >Put another way, it is through the five skandhas that clinging occurs. See, for instance, the Samadhi Sutta (SN 22:5) (Thanissaro, 2006b).
- ^ The apparent distinctions between the nidana model and the khandha model are reduced when, instead of using the twelve-nidana model of the Samyutta Nikaya, chapter 12 (e.g., Thanissaro, 1997d), one compares the nine-nidana model of the Maha-nidana Sutta (DN 15) (Thanissaro, 1997a) where consciousness conditions name-and-form and name-and-form conditions consciousness.
- ^ Bodhi (2000b, pp. 839-840) writes: "Whereas the teaching on dependent origination is intended to disclose the dynamic pattern running through everyday experience that propels the round of rebirth and death forward from life to life, the teaching on the five aggregates concentrates on experience in its lived immediacy in the continuum from birth to death." Perhaps in a similar vein, Bodhi (2000b, pp. 762-3, n. 132) notes elsewhere that, according to the Samyutta Nikaya's subcommentary: "There are two kinds of origin, momentary origin (khanika-samudaya) and origin through conditions (paccaya-samudaya). A bhikkhu who sees one sees the other."
- ^ According to Nattier (1992), the Heart Sutra was originally composed in Chinese and later back-translated into Sanskrit. Thereafter, it became popular in India and later Tibet. Elements in this translation are not present in Chinese versions of this sutra.
- ^ See also Nhat Hanh (1988), p. 1, and Suzuki (1960), p. 26. Nhat Hanh (1988) adds to this first verse the sentence: "After this penetration, he overcame all pain." Suzuki (1960), p. 29, notes that this additional sentence is unique to Hsuan-chuang's translation and is omitted in other versions of the Heart Sutra.
- ^ In the Theravada canon, the English word "self-existence" is a translation of the Sanskrit word svabhava. "Svabhava" has also been translated as "self-nature" (Suzuki, 1960, p. 26), "separate self" (Nhat Hanh, 1988, p. 16) and "self-existence" (Red Pine, 2004, p. 67). Note that Chinese versions of the Heart Sutra do not contain the notion of svabhava. When "emptiness of self" is mentioned, the English word "self" is a translation of the Pali word "atta" (Sanskrit, "atman").
- ^ Regarding the term sabhāva (Pali; Skt: svabhāva) in the Pali Canon, Gal (2003), p. 7, writes: "To judge from the suttas, the term sabhāva was never employed by the Buddha and it is rare in the Pali Canon in general. Only in the post-canonical period does it become a standard concept, when it is extensively used in the commentarial descriptions of the dhammas [conditioned mental and physical processes] and in the sub-commentarial exegesis.
The term sabhāva, though, does occur on various occasions in five canonical or para-canonical texts: the Paṭisambhidāmagga, the Peṭakopadesa, the Nettippakaraṇa, the Milindapañha and the Buddhavaṃsa."
Gal (p. 10) speculates that the use of the term sabhāva in the Paṭisambhidāmagga might be the earliest occurrence in Pali literature and quotes (p. 7, esply. n. 28) from this text (Paṭis. II 178) the application of the phrase sabhāvena suññaṃ (Pali for "empty of sabhāva") to each of the aggregates — at least superficially similar to an application of svabhāva in the Prajnaparamita Hridaya Sutra ("Heart Sutra") cited in this article. - ^ This type of analysis of the aggregates (where ignorance conditions the five aggregates) might be akin to that described by the Twelve Nidanas.
Referencias
- ^ a b c Thomas William Rhys Davids; William Stede (1921). Pali-English Dictionary. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 232–234. ISBN 978-81-208-1144-7.
- ^ Robert E. Buswell Jr.; Donald S. Lopez Jr. (2013). The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism. Princeton University Press. pp. 708, 721–723, 827–828. ISBN 978-1-4008-4805-8.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Harvey 2013, p. 55.
- ^ Steven M. Emmanuel (2015). A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 193, 232–233, 421–425. ISBN 978-1-119-14466-3.
- ^ a b Steven M. Emmanuel (2015). A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 587–588. ISBN 978-1-119-14466-3.
- ^ Skandha Encyclopædia Britannica (2013)
- ^ Karunamuni ND (May 2015). "The Five-Aggregate Model of the Mind". SAGE Open. 5 (2): 215824401558386. doi:10.1177/2158244015583860.
- ^ Monier Monier-Williams (1872). A Sanskrit-English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. p. 1141.
- ^ Dalai Lama (1966). The Opening of the Wisdom-Eye: And the History of the Advancement of Buddhadharma in Tibet. Theosophical Publishing House. pp. 37–38. ISBN 978-0-8356-0549-6.
- ^ Paul Williams; Anthony Tribe (2000). Buddhist Thought. Routledge. pp. 42, 48, 58–60, 69–70. ISBN 978-0-415207003.
- ^ a b c Bronkhorst 2009, p. 28–31.
- ^ a b Damien Keown; Charles S. Prebish (2013). Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Routledge. pp. 321–322, 382, 844–845. ISBN 978-1-136-98588-1.
- ^ a b c d e f g Harvey 2013, p. 56-57.
- ^ David J. Kalupahana (1992). A History of Buddhist Philosophy: Continuities and Discontinuities. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 71–72. ISBN 978-0-8248-1402-1.
- ^ Thomas William Rhys Davids; William Stede (1921). Pali-English Dictionary. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 664–665. ISBN 978-81-208-1144-7.
- ^ See, for instance, SN 22.79, "Being Devoured" (Bodhi, 2000b, p. 915).
- ^ Peter Harvey, The Selfless Mind. Curzon Press 1995, page 143-146
- ^ a b c Thanissaro Bhikkhu (2010), The Five Aggregates. A Study Guide
- ^ a b Bronkhorst 2009, p. 28.
- ^ a b c d MacKenzie 2013, p. 242–247.
- ^ Harvey 2013, p. 56.
- ^ Bhikkhu Bodhi, 2000b, p. 840
- ^ Anicca Buddhism, Encyclopædia Britannica (2013)
- ^ David J. Kalupahana (1975). Causality: The Central Philosophy of Buddhism. University Press of Hawaii. pp. 84–86. ISBN 978-0-8248-0298-1.
- ^ Clark Johnson (2006). On Buddha Essence: A Commentary on Rangjung Dorje's Treatise. Shambhala Publications. pp. 34–35. ISBN 978-1-59030-276-7.
- ^ Peter Harvey (2012). An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices. Cambridge University Press. pp. 57–62. ISBN 978-0-521-85942-4.
- ^ Peter Harvey (2015). Steven M. Emmanuel (ed.). A Companion to Buddhist Philosophy. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 34–37. ISBN 978-1-119-14466-3.
- ^ Kalupahana (1975), page 86. The quote is from S 3.142, and also occurs in the Āgamas.
- ^ Peter Harvey (2012). An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices. Cambridge University Press. pp. 59–62. ISBN 978-0-521-85942-4.
- ^ Harvey 2013, p. 57.
- ^ a b c d Peter Harvey (1995), The Selfless Mind, Curzon Press, pages 228-230.
- ^ William Edelglass; Jay Garfield (2009). Buddhist Philosophy: Essential Readings. Oxford University Press. pp. 261–264, 288–295, 297–308, 358–363, 226–227, 317–329. ISBN 978-0-19-971655-5.;
Irina Kuznetsova; Chakravarthi Ram-Prasad; Jonardon Ganeri (2012). "Chapter 9, see also the Introduction Chapter". Hindu and Buddhist Ideas in Dialogue: Self and No-Self. Ashgate Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4094-5662-9. - ^ Rupert Gethin (16 July 1998). The Foundations of Buddhism. Oxford University Press. pp. 140–149, 238–239. ISBN 978-0-19-289223-2., Quote: We have seen how Buddhist thought criticizes the concept of an unchanging self as incoherent; however, both ancient and modern critics have argued that to do away with the self in the manner of Buddhist thought in fact creates insurmountable philosophical and moral problems. (...) We have seen how Buddhist thought breaks down an individual into five classes of physical and mental events known as skandhas or aggregates".
- ^ a b Ruhe 2005, p. 92–93.
- ^ a b Loy 2009, p. 63–64.
- ^ a b Pine 2004, p. 9.
- ^ David J. Kalupahana (1975). Causality: The Central Philosophy of Buddhism. University Press of Hawaii. pp. 85–86. ISBN 978-0-8248-0298-1.
- ^ Adrian Snodgrass (1992). The Symbolism of the Stupa. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 137 with note 165. ISBN 978-81-208-0781-5.
- ^ a b Gethin 1986.
- ^ a b c Boisvert 2005, p. 147.
- ^ Bosivert 2005, p. 150.
- ^ Boisvert 2005, p. 147-148.
- ^ a b Boisvert 2005, p. 148.
- ^ Bronkhorst 2009, p. 26-32.
- ^ a b c d Bronkhorst 2009, p. 27.
- ^ Bronkhorst 2009, p. 28-29.
- ^ a b Albahari, Miri (March 2002). "Against No-Ātman Theories of Anattā". Asian Philosophy. 12 (1): 5–20. doi:10.1080/09552360220142225. ISSN 0955-2367.
- ^ Bodhi 2000b, p. 1122.
- ^ Bodhi 2000b, pp. 1125-127.
- ^ Maha-punnama Sutta: The Great Full-moon Night Discourse, Thanissaro Bhikkhu (2001)
- ^ a b Bodhi 2000b, p. 1123.
- ^ Bodhi, 2000b, pp. 1122-23
- ^ Bodhi (2000b), pp. 1125-26
- ^ Bodhi (2000a), pp. 287-8.
- ^ Bodhi (2000a), p. 6.
- ^ a b c Shulman 2007.
- ^ a b Jurewicz 2000.
- ^ Frauwallner 1973, p. 167-168.
- ^ Schumann 1997.
- ^ a b c Bucknell 1999.
- ^ a b Gombrich 2009.
- ^ a b c Jones 2009.
- ^ Wayman 1984, p. 173 with note 16.
- ^ Wayman 1990, p. 256. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFWayman1990 (help)
- ^ Wayman 1971.
- ^ Boisvert 1995.
- ^ Gombrich 2009, p. 138.
- ^ Boisvert 1995, p. 127.
- ^ Boisvert 1995, p. 127-128.
- ^ Williams 2000, p. 46.
- ^ Kuan 2008, p. i, 9, 81.
- ^ (Pāli: kāya-sati, kāyagatā-sati; Skt. kāya-smṛti)
- ^ (Pāli vedanā-sati; Skt. vedanā-smṛti)
- ^ (Pāli citta-sati; Skt. citta-smṛti)
- ^ (Pāli dhammā-sati; Skt. dharma-smṛti)
- ^ Polak 2011, p. 153-156, 196-197.
- ^ a b Red Pine (2004), p.2.
- ^ Nhat Hanh (1988), p.1. Again, also see Red Pine (2004), p. 2, and Suzuki (1960), p. 26.
- ^ Kalupahana 1975, page 78
- ^ Jinpa 2002 , page 112.
- ^ Lai 2003.
- ^ Swanson 1993, p. 373.
- ^ Suzuki (1960), p. 29, n. 4.
- ^ Trungpa, 2001, pp. 10–12; and, Trungpa, 2002, pp. 124, 133–134
- ^ Trungpa Rinpoche 1976, pp. 20–22
- ^ Trungpa Rinpoche 1976, p. 23
Fuentes
Primary literature
- Sutta Pitaka
- Bodhi, Bhikkhu (trans.) (2000b), The Connected Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Samyutta Nikaya, Boston: Wisdom Publications, ISBN 978-0-86171-331-8
- Ñāṇamoli, Bhikkhu (trans.) & Bodhi, Bhikkhu (ed.) (2001). The Middle-Length Discourses of the Buddha: A Translation of the Majjhima Nikāya. Boston: Wisdom Publications. ISBN 0-86171-072-X.
- Anthologies of suttas
- Bodhi, Bhikkhu (ed.) (2005a). In the Buddha's Words: An Anthology of Discourses from the Pāli Canon. Boston: Wisdom Pubs. ISBN 0-86171-491-1.
- Single sutras
- Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (1998). Culavedalla Sutta: The Shorter Set of Questions-and-Answers [MN 44].
- Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (2001a). Khajjaniya Sutta: Chewed Up [SN 22.79].
- Thanissaro Bhikkhu (trans.) (2001b). Maha-punnama Sutta: The Great Full-moon Night Discourse [MN 109].
- Abhidhamma, Pali commentaries, modern Theravada
- Bodhi, Bhikkhu (ed.) (2000a). A Comprehensive Manual of Abhidhamma: The Abhidhammattha Sangaha of Ācariya Anuruddha. Seattle, WA: BPS Pariyatti Editions. ISBN 1-928706-02-9.
- Bodhi, Bhikkhu (18 Jan 2005b). MN 10: Satipatthana Sutta (continued) Ninth dharma talk on the Satipatthana Sutta (MP3 audio file)[permanent dead link].
- Buddhaghosa, Bhadantācariya (trans. from Pāli by Bhikkhu Ñāṇamoli) (1999). The Path of Purification: Visuddhimagga. Seattle, WA: BPS Pariyatti Editions. ISBN 1-928706-00-2.
- Ñāṇamoli, Bhikkhu (trans.) (1998). Mindfulness of Breathing (Ānāpānasati): Buddhist texts from the Pāli Canon and Extracts from the Pāli Commentaries. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society. ISBN 955-24-0167-4.
- Soma Thera (trans.) (2003). The Way of Mindfulness. Kandy, Sri Lanka: Buddhist Publication Society. ISBN 955-24-0256-5.
- Thanissaro Bhikkhu (2002). Five Piles of Bricks: The Khandhas as Burden & Path.
- Mahayana
- Fremantle, Francesca & Trungpa, Chõgyam (2003). The Tibetan Book of the Dead: The Great Liberation Through Hearing in the Bardo. Boston: Shambhala Publications. ISBN 1-59030-059-9.
- Nhât Hanh, Thich (1988). The Heart of Understanding: Commentaries on the Prajnaparamita Heart Sutra. Berkeley, CA: Parallax Press. ISBN 0-938077-11-2.
- Nhât Hanh, Thich (1999). The Heart of the Buddha's Teaching. NY: Broadway Books. ISBN 0-7679-0369-2.
- Red Pine (2004). The Heart Sutra. Emeryville, CA: Shoemaker & Hoard. ISBN 1-59376-009-4.
- Suzuki, Daisetz Teitaro (1960). Manual of Zen Buddhism. NY: Grove Press. ISBN 0-8021-3065-8.
- Trungpa, Chögyam (1976). The Myth of Freedom and the Way of Meditation. Boulder: Shambhala. ISBN 0-87773-084-9.
- Trungpa, Chögyam (1999). The Essential Chögyam Trungpa. Boston: Shambhala. ISBN 1-57062-466-6.
- Trungpa, Chögyam (2001). Glimpses of Abhidharma. Boston: Shambhala. ISBN 1-57062-764-9.
- Trungpa, Chögyam (2002). Cutting Through Spiritual Materialism. Boston: Shambhala. ISBN 1-57062-957-9.
Secondary literature
- Boisvert, Mathieu (1995), The Five Aggregates. Understanding Theravada Psychology and Soteriology, Wilfrid Laurier University Press, for the Canadian Corporation for Studies in Religion / Corporation Canadienne des Sciences Religieuses
- Bronkhorst, Johannes (2009), Buddhist Teaching in India, Wisdom Publications, ISBN 978-0-86171-811-5
- Bucknell, Roderick S. (1999), "Conditioned Arising Evolves: Variation and Change in Textual Accounts of the Paticca-samupadda Doctrine", Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, 22 (2)
- Frauwallner, Erich (1973), "Chapter 5. The Buddha and the Jina", History of Indian Philosophy: The philosophy of the Veda and of the epic. The Buddha and the Jina. The Sāmkhya and the classical Yoga-system, Motilal Banarsidass
- Gal, Noa (July 2003). The Rise of the Concept of ‘Own-Nature’: (Sabhāva) in the Paṭisambhidāmagga [excerpt from Ph.D. thesis]. Oxford: Wolfson College. Retrieved 2008-01-22 from "Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies" at Internet Archive.
- Gethin, Ruper (1986), "The five khandhas: Their theatment in the nikāyas and early abhidhamma", Journal of Indian Philosophy, 14, doi:10.1007/BF00165825
- Gombrich, Richard (2009), "Chaper 9. Causation and non-random process", What the Buddha Thought, Equinox
- Sue Hamilton. "From the Buddha to Buddhaghosa: Changing Attitudes Toward the Human Body in Theravāda Buddhism." In Religious Reflections on the Human Body, edited by Jane Marie Law. Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1995, pp. 46–63.
- Sue Hamilton. Identity and Experience: the Constitution of the Human Being According to Early Buddhism. London: Luzac Oriental,
- Harvey, Peter (2013), An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices, 2nd Edition, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-85942-41996.
- Jinpa, Thupten (2002). Self, Reality and Reason in Tibetan Philosophy: Tsongkhapa's Quest for the Middle Way. Routledge.
- Jones, Dhivan Thomas (2009), "New Light on the Twelve Nidanas", Contemporary Buddhism, 10 (2)
- Jurewicz, Joanna (2000), "Playing with Fire: The pratityasamutpada from the perspective of Vedic thought" (PDF), Journal of the Pali Text Society, 26: 77–103
- Kalupahana, David (1975). Causality: The Central Philosophy of Buddhism. The University Press of Hawaii.
- Kuan, Tse-fu (2008), Mindfulness in Early Buddhism: New Approaches through Psychology and Textual Analysis of Pāli, Chinese and Sanskrit Sources, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-43737-0
- Lai, Whalen (2003), Buddhism in China: A Historical Survey. In Antonio S. Cua (ed.): Encyclopedia of Chinese Philosophy (PDF), New York: Routledge, archived from the original on November 12, 2014CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
- Loy, David (2009), Awareness Bound and Unbound: Buddhist Essays, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-1-4384-2680-8
- MacKenzie, Matthew (2013), "Enacting the Self: Buddhist and Enactivist Approaches to the Emergence of the Self", in Siderits, Mark; Thompson, Evan; Zahavi, Dan (eds.), Self, No Self?: Perspectives from Analytical, Phenomenological, and Indian Traditions, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-166830-2
- Nattier, Jan (1992). "The Heart Sutra: A Chinese Apocryphal Text?" Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 153–223.
- Polak, Grzegorz (2011), Reexamining Jhana: Towards a Critical Reconstruction of Early Buddhist Soteriology, UMCS
- Rawson, Philip (1991). Sacred Tibet. NY: Thames and Hudson. ISBN 0-500-81032-X.
- Ruhe, Brian (2005), Freeing the Buddha, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-1835-4
- Schumann, Hans Wolfgang (1974), Buddhism: an outline of its teachings and schools, Theosophical Pub. House
- Schumann, Hans Wolfgang (1997) [1976], Boeddhisme. Stichter, scholen, systemen (Buddhismus - Stifter, Schulen und Systemen), Asoka
- Shulman, Eviatar (2007), "Early Meanings of Dependent-Origination", Journal of Indian Philosophy, 36 (2): 297–317, doi:10.1007/s10781-007-9030-8
- Swanson, Paul L. (1993), The Spirituality of Emptiness in Early chinese Buddhism. In: Buddhist Spirituality. Indian, Southeast Asian, Tibetan, Early Chinese; edited by Takeuchi Yoshinori, New York: Crossroad
- Wayman, Alex (1971), "Buddhist Dependent Origination", History of Religions, 10 (3): 185–203, JSTOR 1062009
- Wayman, Alex (1984), "Dependent Origination - the Indo-Tibetan Vision", Buddhist Insight: Essays, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0675-7
- Wayman, Alex (1990) [1984], "The Intermediate-State Dispute in Buddhism", Buddhist Insight: Essays, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0675-7
- Wayman, Alex (1990), Budddhist Insight. Essays by Alex Wayman, Motilall Banarsidass
- Williams, Paul; Tribe, Anthony (2000), Buddhist Thought, Routledge
Web-sources
- ^ Salient sections of the Pāli canon on kāya-sati (kāya-gatā-sati): http://www.palikanon.com/english/wtb/g_m/kaaya_gata_sati.htm
enlaces externos
Theravada
- Khandavagga suttas (a selection), translated primarily by Thanissaro Bhikkhu.
Mahayana
- The Five Skandhas, table showing the five skandhas, prepared by Alan Fox (Dept. of Philosophy, U. of Delaware).
Vajrayana
- A View on Buddhism: Mind and Mental Factors, web page including description of the Five Aggregates.