Históricamente, la esclavitud ha sido regulada, apoyada u opuesta por motivos religiosos.
En el judaísmo , los esclavos recibieron una variedad de tratamientos y protecciones. Debían ser tratados como una familia extensa con ciertas protecciones y podrían ser liberados. Eran propiedad pero también podían poseer bienes materiales.
Los primeros autores cristianos mantuvieron la igualdad espiritual de esclavos y personas libres mientras aceptaban la esclavitud como institución. Los primeros decretos papales modernos permitieron la esclavitud de los incrédulos, aunque los papas denunciaron la esclavitud desde el siglo XV en adelante. En el siglo XVIII, el movimiento de abolición tomó forma entre los cristianos de todo el mundo, pero varias denominaciones no prohibieron la esclavitud entre sus miembros hasta el siglo XIX. Los no creyentes esclavizados a veces se convirtieron al cristianismo , pero elementos de sus creencias tradicionales se fusionaron con sus creencias cristianas.
Los primeros textos islámicos fomentan la bondad hacia los esclavos y la manumisión , al tiempo que reconocen la esclavitud como una institución y permiten la esclavitud de los no musulmanes encarcelados o comprados más allá de las fronteras del dominio islámico. Los niños nacidos de esclavos también se consideraban legalmente esclavos.
Esclavitud en la biblia
La narración del Génesis sobre la maldición de Cam a menudo se ha considerado una historia etiológica , que da una razón para la esclavitud de los cananeos . La palabra jamón es muy similar a la palabra hebrea para caliente , que está relacionada con una palabra egipcia ( kem , que significa negro ) y se usa para referirse al propio Egipto , en referencia a la fértil tierra negra a lo largo del valle del Nilo . Aunque muchos eruditos ven a Cam como un epónimo que se usa para representar a Egipto en la Tabla de las Naciones , [1] varios cristianos a lo largo de la historia, incluidos Orígenes [2] y la Cueva de los Tesoros , [3] han abogado por la alternativa proposición de que Ham representa a todas las personas negras , su nombre simboliza el color de su piel oscura; [4] Los defensores de la esclavitud, desde Eutiquio de Alejandría [5] y John Philoponus , [6] hasta los apologistas estadounidenses a favor de la esclavitud, [7] han interpretado ocasionalmente la narrativa como una condena de todos los negros a la esclavitud. [8] Algunos cristianos, como Jerome , incluso adoptaron la noción racista de que los negros tienen un alma inherentemente tan negra como [su] cuerpo . [9]
La esclavitud era una costumbre en la antigüedad y la Torah la aprueba . [10] La Biblia usa el término hebreo ebed para referirse a la esclavitud; sin embargo, ebed tiene un significado mucho más amplio que el término inglés esclavitud , y en varias circunstancias se traduce con mayor precisión al inglés como sirviente . [11] Se consideró legítimo esclavizar a los cautivos obtenidos mediante la guerra, [12] pero no mediante el secuestro. [13] [14] Los niños también podían ser vendidos como servidumbre por deudas , [15] que a veces era ordenado por un tribunal de justicia. [16] [17] [18]
Al igual que con las leyes hititas y el código de Hammurabi , [19] la Biblia establece reglas mínimas para las condiciones bajo las cuales se mantendría a los esclavos. Los esclavos debían ser tratados como parte de una familia extensa; [20] se les permitió celebrar el festival de Sucot , [20] y se esperaba que honraran el Shabat . [21] Los esclavos israelitas no podían ser obligados a trabajar con rigor , [22] [23] y los deudores que se vendían a sí mismos como esclavos a sus acreedores debían ser tratados de la misma manera que un criado asalariado. [24] Si un amo dañaba a un esclavo en una de las formas cubiertas por la lex talionis , el esclavo debía ser compensado con manumisión ; [25] si el esclavo moría dentro de las 24 a 48 horas, él o ella debía ser vengado [26] (si esto se refiere a la pena de muerte [18] [27] o no [28] es incierto).
Los esclavos israelitas fueron manumitidos automáticamente después de seis años de trabajo, y / o en el próximo Jubileo (ocurriendo cada 49 o cada 50 años, dependiendo de la interpretación), aunque esto último no se aplicaría si el esclavo era propiedad de un israelita y no lo era. t en servidumbre por deudas. [29] Los esclavos liberados automáticamente en su séptimo año de servicio, que no incluía a las esclavas, [30] o [31] [32] sí, [33] debían recibir ganado, grano y vino como regalo de despedida. [34] (posiblemente colgado del cuello [18] ). Esta manumisión del séptimo año podría renunciarse voluntariamente, lo que se significaría, como en otras naciones del Antiguo Cercano Oriente, [35] por el esclavo obteniendo una perforación ritual en la oreja ; [36] después de tal renuncia, el individuo fue esclavizado para siempre (y no fue liberado en el Jubileo [37] ). Los esclavos no israelitas siempre debían ser esclavizados para siempre y tratados como propiedad heredable. [38]
En los libros del Nuevo Testamento , incluida la Primera Epístola de Pedro , se exhorta a los esclavos a obedecer a sus amos, como al Señor, y no a los hombres ; [39] [40] [41] [42] [43] y la Epístola a Filemón fue utilizada tanto por defensores de la esclavitud como por abolicionistas; [44] [45] en la epístola, Pablo devuelve a Onésimo, un esclavo fugitivo, a su amo.
judaísmo
Las formas más dominantes del judaísmo del primer siglo no exhibieron tales escrúpulos sobre la esclavitud, y desde la expulsión de judíos de Judea en el siglo II, los judíos ricos han tenido esclavos no judíos, dondequiera que fuera legal hacerlo; [18] sin embargo, las manumisiones fueron aprobadas por los funcionarios religiosos judíos con el más mínimo de pretextos, y los casos judiciales relacionados con la manumisión casi siempre se decidieron a favor de la libertad, siempre que hubiera incertidumbre sobre los hechos. [27] [46]
El Talmud , un documento de gran importancia en el judaísmo, emitió muchos fallos que tuvieron el efecto de hacer la manumisión más fácil y más probable:
- La entrega costosa y obligatoria de obsequios se restringió únicamente al séptimo año de manumisión. [18]
- El precio de la libertad se redujo a una proporción del precio de compra original en lugar de la tarifa total de un sirviente contratado y podría reducirse aún más si el esclavo se había debilitado o enfermo (y por lo tanto menos vendible). [18] [27]
- La manumisión voluntaria se hizo oficialmente posible con la introducción de la escritura de manumisión ( shetar shihrur ), que se contaba como prueba prima facie de manumisión.
- Las declaraciones verbales de manumisión ya no podían revocarse. [47]
- Poner filacterias al esclavo, o hacerle leer públicamente tres o más versículos de la Torá, se contaba como una declaración de la manumisión del esclavo. [27]
- Una enfermedad de larga duración, hasta por cuatro años en total, no podía contarse contra el derecho del esclavo a la manumisión después de seis años de esclavitud. [18] [27]
La participación judía en el comercio de esclavos en sí también estaba regulada por el Talmud. El miedo a la apostasía llevó al desaliento talmúdico de la venta de esclavos judíos a no judíos, [48] aunque se permitieron los préstamos; [49] de manera similar, el comercio de esclavos con Tiro solo debía tener el propósito de eliminar a los esclavos de la religión no judía. [50] El racismo religioso significó que los escritores talmúdicos prohibieron por completo la venta o transferencia de esclavos cananeos de Palestina a otros lugares. [51] También se desaniman Otros tipos de comercio: los hombres venderse a las mujeres, y post- púberes hijas que se venden como esclavo por sus padres. [18] [27] Las esclavas prepúberes vendidas por sus padres tenían que ser liberadas y luego casadas por su nuevo dueño, o su hijo, cuando ella comenzaba la pubertad ; [18] no se podía permitir que los esclavos se casaran con judíos libres, [52] aunque a los amos a menudo se les concedía acceso a los servicios de las esposas de cualquiera de sus esclavos. [53]
Según la ley talmúdica, matar a un esclavo se castiga de la misma manera que matar a un hombre libre, incluso si fue cometido por el propietario. Si bien los esclavos se consideran propiedad del dueño, no pueden trabajar los sábados y feriados; pueden adquirir y poseer propiedades del propietario. [54]
Varios escritores judíos prominentes de la Edad Media se sintieron ofendidos por la idea de que los judíos pudieran ser esclavizados; Joseph Caro y Maimónides argumentan que llamar a un judío esclavo era tan ofensivo que debería ser castigado con una excomunión . [55] [56] Sin embargo, no condenaron la esclavitud de los no judíos. De hecho, argumentaron que la regla bíblica, según la cual los esclavos deben ser liberados por ciertas lesiones, en realidad solo debería aplicarse a los esclavos que se habían convertido al judaísmo; [18] adicionalmente, Maimónides argumentó que esta manumisión era un castigo real del propietario, por lo que solo podía ser impuesta por un tribunal y requería prueba de testigos. [18] A diferencia de la ley bíblica que protege a los esclavos fugitivos, Maimónides argumentó que esos esclavos deberían ser obligados a comprar su libertad. [18] [27]
Al mismo tiempo, Maimónides y otras autoridades halájicas prohibieron o desaconsejaron enérgicamente cualquier trato poco ético a los esclavos. Según la ley judía tradicional, un esclavo es más como un sirviente contratado, que tiene derechos y debe ser tratado casi como un miembro de la familia del propietario. Maimónides escribió que, independientemente de si un esclavo es judío o no, "el camino del piadoso y del sabio es ser compasivo y perseguir la justicia, no sobrecargar ni oprimir a un esclavo, y proveerlos de cada plato y cada bebida. . Los primeros sabios daban a sus esclavos de cada plato en su mesa. Ellos daban de comer a sus sirvientes antes de sentarse a sus propias comidas ... Los esclavos no pueden ser maltratados o ofendidos - la ley los destinaba al servicio, no a la humillación. grítales o enfadarte con ellos, pero escúchalos ". En otro contexto, Maimónides escribió que todas las leyes de la esclavitud son "misericordia, compasión y tolerancia". [57] [58]
cristiandad
Durante más de 18 siglos existieron diferentes formas de esclavitud dentro del cristianismo . Aunque en los primeros años del cristianismo , la liberación de esclavos se consideraba un acto de caridad, [59] y la visión cristiana de que todas las personas eran iguales, incluidos los esclavos, era una idea novedosa dentro del Imperio Romano , [60] la institución de la esclavitud rara vez se criticado. David Brion Davis escribe que "las variaciones en la opinión cristiana primitiva sobre la servidumbre encajan cómodamente dentro de un marco de pensamiento que excluiría cualquier intento de abolir la esclavitud como institución". [61] De hecho, en 340, el Sínodo local de Gangra condenó a los maniqueos por instar a los esclavos a liberarse; con uno de los 20 cánones del Sínodo que declara:
3) Si alguien enseña a un esclavo, con el pretexto de la piedad, a despreciar a su amo y a huir de su servicio, y a no servir a su propio amo con buena voluntad y con todo honor, sea anatema. [62]
Una variación del Canon sería adoptada como Ley Católica Ortodoxa, durante el 451 d.C., Concilio de Calcedonia , como:
4) ... Todo monje debe estar sujeto a su obispo, y no debe salir de su casa excepto por sugerencia suya. Un esclavo, sin embargo, no puede entrar en la vida monástica sin el consentimiento de su amo.
Agustín de Hipona , quien renunció a su antiguo maniqueísmo, argumentó que la esclavitud era parte del mecanismo para preservar el orden natural de las cosas; [63] [64] Juan Crisóstomo , quien es considerado un santo por la ortodoxia oriental y el catolicismo romano , argumentó que los esclavos deberían resignarse a su destino, porque al "obedecer a su amo está obedeciendo a Dios". [65] pero también afirmó que "la esclavitud es fruto de la codicia, de la extravagancia, de la codicia insaciable" en su Epista. ad Ephes. [66] Como el apóstol Pablo amonestó a los primeros cristianos; "No hay judío ni griego; no hay esclavo ni libre; no hay hombre ni mujer. Porque todos sois uno en Cristo Jesús". Y de hecho, incluso algunos de los primeros papas alguna vez fueron esclavos. [60] El Papa Gelasio I , en 492 d. C., sancionó que los paganos en la Galia podían ser esclavizados, importados y vendidos por judíos en Roma. [67] Aunque en los siglos siguientes los papas romanos prohibirían la propiedad de esclavos cristianos por judíos, musulmanes, paganos y otros cristianos, mientras que el Concilio Católico de Londres en 1102 , emitió un decreto general local, aunque no un canon de la Iglesia: " Que nadie se atreva en lo sucesivo a participar en el infame negocio, predominante en Inglaterra, de vender hombres como animales " [68].
En 1452, el Papa Nicolás V emitió la bula papal Dum Diversas , que concedía a Alfonso V de Portugal el derecho de reducir a los "sarracenos, paganos y otros incrédulos" a la esclavitud hereditaria. La aprobación de la esclavitud en estas condiciones fue reafirmada y ampliada en su bula Romanus Pontifex de 1455. (Esta bula papal fue emitida en respuesta a las guerras desencadenadas por la caída de Constantinopla en 1453) En 1488 el Papa Inocencio VIII aceptó el regalo de 100 esclavos de Fernando II de Aragón y repartió esos esclavos entre sus cardenales y la nobleza romana. Además, en 1639 el Papa Urbano VIII compró esclavos para sí mismo a los Caballeros de Malta . [69]
En los siglos XV y XVI, otros Papas denunciaron la esclavitud como un gran crimen , entre ellos Pío II , [60] Pablo III , [70] y Eugenio IV . [71] En 1639, el Papa Urbano VIII prohibió la esclavitud, al igual que Benedicto XIV en 1741. En 1815, el Papa Pío VII exigió que el Congreso de Viena suprimiera la trata de esclavos, y Gregorio XVI la volvió a condenar en 1839. [60]
In addition, the Dominican friars who arrived in the Spanish settlement of Santo Domingo in 1510 strongly denounced the enslavement of the local Indians. Along with other priests, they opposed the mistreatment of the Indians and denounced it as unjust and illegal in an audience with the Spanish king as well as in the subsequent royal commission.[72] As a response to this position, the Spanish monarchy's subsequent Requerimiento provided a religious justification for the enslavement of the local populations, on the pretext that they refused to convert to Roman Catholicism and therefore denied the authority of the Pope.[73]
Various interpretations of Christianity were also used to justify slavery.[74] For example, some people believed that slavery was a punishment that was reserved for sinners.[74] Some other Christian organizations were slaveholders. The 18th-century high-church Anglican Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts owned the Codrington Plantation, in Barbados, which contained several hundred slaves, who were branded on their chests with the word Society.[75][76] George Whitefield, who is famed for his sparking of the so-called Great Awakening of American evangelicalism, overturned a province-wide ban against slavery,[77] and went on to own several hundred slaves himself.[78] Yet Whitefield is remembered as one of the first evangelists who preached to the enslaved.[79]
At other times, Christian groups worked against slavery. The 7th-century Saint Eloi used his vast wealth to purchase British and Saxon slaves in groups of 50 to 100 in order to set them free.[80] The Quakers in particular were early leaders of abolitionism, and in keeping with this tradition they denounced slavery at least as early as 1688. In 1787 the Society for Effecting the Abolition of the Slave Trade was formed, and 9 of its 12 founding members were Quakers; William Wilberforce, an early supporter of the society, went on to push through the 1807 Slave Trade Act, striking a major blow against the Atlantic slave trade. Leaders of Methodism and Presbyterianism also vehemently denounced human bondage,[81][82][83] convincing their congregations to do likewise; Methodists[84] and Presbyterians[85] subsequently made the repudiation of slavery a condition of membership.
In the Southern United States, however, support for slavery was strong; anti-slavery literature was prevented from passing through the postal system, and even the transcripts of sermons, by the famed English preacher Charles Spurgeon, were burned due to their censure of slavery.[86] When the American Civil War broke out, slavery became one of the issues which would be decided by its outcome; the southern defeat led to a constitutional ban on slavery. Despite the general emancipation of slaves, members of fringe white groups like the Christian Identity movement, and the Ku Klux Klan (a white supremacist group) see the enslavement of Africans as a positive aspect of American history.
Slave Christianity
In the United States, Christianity not only held views about slavery but also on how slaves practiced their own form of Christianity. Prior to the work of Melville Herskovits in 1941, it was widely believed that all elements of African culture were destroyed by the horrific experiences of Africans who had been forced to come to the United States of America. Since his groundbreaking work, scholarship has found that Slave Christianity existed as an extraordinarily creative patchwork of African and Christian religious traditions.[87] The slaves brought a wide variety of religious traditions with them including tribal shamanism and Islam. Beyond that, tribal traditions could vary to a high degree across the African continent.
During the early eighteenth century, Anglican missionaries who attempted to bring Christianity to slaves in the Southern colonies often found themselves butting up against uncooperative masters and resistant slaves. An unquestionable obstacle to the acceptance of Christianity among slaves was their desire to continue to adhere to the religious beliefs and rituals of their African ancestors as much as possible. Missionaries who worked in the South were especially displeased with the slaves' retention of African practices such as polygamy and what they called idolatrous dancing. In fact, even black people who embraced Christianity in America did not completely abandon the religion of the Old World. Instead, they engaged in syncretism, blending Christian influences with traditional African rites and beliefs. Symbols and objects, such as crosses, were conflated with charms which were carried by Africans in order to ward off evil spirits. Christ was interpreted as a healer who was similar to the priests of Africa. In the New World, fusions of African spirituality and Christianity led to distinctly new practices within slave populations, including voodoo or vodun in Haiti and Spanish Louisiana. Although African religious influences were also important among Northern black people, the exposure to Old World religions was more intense in the South, where the density of the black population was higher.
There were, however, some commonalities across the majority of tribal traditions. Perhaps the primary understanding of tribal traditions was the commonly-held belief that there was no separation of the sacred and the secular.[88] All life was sacred and the supernatural was present in every facet and focus of life. Most tribal traditions highlighted this experience of the supernatural in ecstatic experiences of the supernatural which were brought on by ritual song and dance. Repetitious music and dancing were often used to bring on these experiences through the use of drums and chanting. These experiences were realized in the "possession" of a worshipper in which one is not only taken over by the divine but actually becomes one with the divine.[88]
Echoes of African tribal traditions can be seen in the Christianity that was practiced by slaves in the Americas. The songs, dances, and ecstatic experiences of traditional tribal religions were Christianized and practiced by slaves in what is called the "Ring Shout."[89] This practice was a major mark of African American Christianity during the slavery period. Slaves were actually sold through the leaders of African tribes.
Christianity came to the slaves of North America more slowly. Many colonial slaveholders feared that baptizing slaves would lead to emancipation because of vague laws that concerned the slave status of Christians under British colonial rule. Even after 1706, by which time many states had passed laws that stated that baptism would not alter a slave's status, slaveholders continued to believe that the catechization of slaves wouldn't be a wise economic choice. Slaves usually had one day off each week, usually Sunday. They used that time to grow their own crops, dance and sing (doing such things on the Sabbath was frowned upon by most preachers), so there was little time for slaves to receive religious instruction.[90]
During the antebellum period, slave preachers - enslaved or formally enslaved evangelists - became instrumental in shaping slave Christianity. They preached a gospel which was radically different from the gospel which was preached by white preachers, who often used Christianity in an attempt to make slaves more complacent with their enslaved status. Instead of focusing on obedience, slave preachers placed a greater emphasis on the Old Testament, especially on the Book of Exodus. They likened the plight of the American slaves to the plight of the enslaved Hebrews of the Bible, instilling hope into the hearts of those who were enslaved. Slave preachers were instrumental in shaping the religious landscape of African Americans for decades to come.[91]
islam
According to Bernard Lewis, slavery has been a part of Islam's history from its beginning. The Quran like the Old and the New Testaments, states Lewis, "assumes the existence of slavery".[92] It attempts to regulate slavery and thereby implicitly accepts it.[93] Muhammad and his Companions owned slaves, and some of them acquired slaves through conquests.[92][94]
The Quran does not forbid slavery, nor does it consider it as a permanent institution.[95] In various verses, it refers to slaves as "necks" (raqabah) or "those whom your right hand possesses" (Ma malakat aymanukum).[95][note 1] In addition to these terms for slaves, the Quran and early Islamic literature uses 'Abd (male) and Amah (female) term for an enslaved and servile possession, as well as other terms. According to Brockopp, seven separate terms for slaves appear in the Quran, in at least twenty nine Quranic verses.[99][98][100]
The Quran assigns the same spiritual value to a slave as to a free man,[101][102] and a believing slave is regarded as superior to a free pagan or idolator.[103] The manumission of slaves is regarded as a meritorious act in the Quran, and is recommended either as an act of charity or as expiation for sins.[101][104][105] While the spiritual value of a slave was the same as the freeman, states Forough Jahanbakhsh, in regards to earthly matters, a slave was not an equal to the freeman and relegated to an inferior status.[106] In the Quran and for its many commentators, states Ennaji, there is a fundamental distinction between free Muslims and slaves, a basic constituent of its social organization, an irreparable dichotomy introduced by the existence of believers and infidels.[107]
The corpus of hadith attributed to Muhammad or his Companions contains a large store of reports enjoining kindness toward slaves.[108][109] Chouki El Hamel has argued that the Quran recommends gradual abolition of slavery,[110] and that some hadith are consistent with that message while others contradict it.[111]
According to Dror Ze'evi, early Islamic dogma set out to improve conditions of human bondage. It forbade enslavement of free members of Islamic society, including non-Muslims (dhimmis) residing under Islamic rule. Islam also allowed the acquisition of lawful non-Muslim slaves who were imprisoned, slaves purchased from lands outside the Islamic state, as well as considered the boys or girls born to slaves as slaves.[112] Islamic law treats a free man and a slave unequally in sentencing for an equivalent crime.[113] For example, traditional Sunni jurisprudence, with the exception of Hanafi law, objects to putting a free man to death for killing a slave.[114][115] A slave who commits a crime may receive the same punishment as a free man, a punishment half as severe, or the master may be responsible for paying the damages, depending on the crime.[116] According to Ze'evi, Islam considered the master to own the slave's labor, a slave to be his master's property to be sold or bought at will, and that the master was entitled to slave's sexual submission.[112]
The Islamic law (sharia) allows the taking of infidels (non-Muslims) as slaves, during religious wars also called holy wars or jihad.[117] In the early Islamic communities, according to Kecia Ali, "both life and law were saturated with slaves and slavery".[118] War, tribute from vassal states, purchase and children who inherited their parent's slavery were the sources of slaves in Islam.[119] In Islam, according to Paul Lovejoy, "the religious requirement that new slaves be pagans and need for continued imports to maintain slave population made Africa an important source of slaves for the Islamic world."[120] Slavery of non-Muslims, followed by the structured process of converting them to Islam then encouraging the freeing of the converted slave, states Lovejoy helped the growth of Islam after its conquests.[121]
According to Mohammed Ennaji, the ownership gave the master a right "to punish one's slave".[122] In Islam, a child inherited slavery if he or she was born to a slave mother and slave father.[123] However, if the child was born to a slave mother and her owner master, then the child was free. Slaves could be given as property (dower) during marriage.[124] The text encourages Muslim men to take slave women as sexual partners (concubines), or marry them.[96] Islam, states Lewis, did not permit Dhimmis (non-Muslims) "to own Muslim slaves; and if a slave owned by a dhimmi embraced Islam, his owner was legally obliged to free or sell him". There was also a gradation in the status on the slave, and his descendants, after the slave converted to Islam.[125]
Under Islamic law, in "what might be called civil matters", a slave was "a chattel with no legal powers or rights whatsoever", states Lewis. A slave could not own or inherit property or enter into a contract. However, he was better off in terms of rights than Greek or Roman slaves.[126] According to Chirag Ali, the early Muslims misinterpreted the Quran as sanctioning "polygamy, arbitrary divorce, slavery, concubinage and religious wars", and he states that the Quranic injunctions are against all this.[127] According to Ron Shaham and other scholars, the various jurisprudence systems on Sharia such as Maliki, Hanafi, Shafi'i, Hanbali and others differ in their interpretation of the Islamic law on slaves.[128][129][130]
Slaves were particularly numerous in Muslim armies. Slave armies were deployed by Sultans and Caliphs at various medieval era war fronts across the Islamic Empires,[119][131] playing an important role in the expansion of Islam in Africa and elsewhere.[132] Slavery of men and women in Islamic states such as the Ottoman Empire, states Ze'evi, continued through the early 20th-century.[112]
Fe bahá'í
Bahá'u'lláh, founder of the Baháʼí Faith, commended Queen Victoria for abolishing the slave trade in a letter written to Her Majesty between 1868–1872.[133] Bahá'u'lláh also forbids slavery in the Kitáb-i-Aqdas[134] written around 1873 considered by Baháʼís to be the holiest book revealed by Bahá'u'lláh in which he states, "It is forbidden you to trade in slaves, be they men or women."[135]
Both the Báb and Bahá'u'lláh owned slaves of African descent before the writing of the Kitab-i-Aqdas. While the Báb purchased several slaves, Bahá'u'lláh acquired his through inheritance and freed them. Bahá'u'lláh officially condemned slavery in 1874. 21st century scholarship has found that the Báb credited one of the slaves of his elders as having raised him and compares him favorably with his own father.[136] Work has continued on other recent finds in archives such as a very early document of Bahá'u'lláh's explaining his emancipating his slave because as all humans are symbolically slaves of God none can be owned by another[137] saying "How, then, can this thrall claim for himself ownership of any other human being? Nay,…."[138]
hinduismo
Vedic period
The term "dasa" (dāsa) in the Vedas is loosely translated as "slave."[139] However, the meaning of the term varied over time. R. S. Sharma, in his 1958 book, for example, states that the only word which could possibly mean slave in Rigveda is dāsa, and this sense of use is traceable to four later verses in Rigveda.[140] The term dāsa in the Rigveda, has been also been translated as a servant or enemy, and the identity of this term remains unclear and disputed among scholars.[141][note 2]
The word dāsi is found in Rigveda and Atharvaveda, states R.S. Sharma, which he states represented "a small servile class of women slaves".[146] Slavery in the Vedic period, according to him, was mostly confined to women employed as domestic workers.[147] He translates dasi in a Vedic era Upanishad as "maid-servant".[148] Male slaves are rarely mentioned in the Vedic texts.[148] The word dāsa occurs in the Hindu Sruti texts Aitareya and Gopatha Brahmanas, but not in the sense of a slave.[148]
Classical Hinduism
Towards the end of the Vedic period (600 BCE), a new system of varnas had appeared, with people called shudras replacing the erstwhile dasas. Some of the shudras were employed as labouring masses on farm land, much like "helots of Sparta", even though they were not treated with the same degree of coercion and contempt.[149] The term dasa was now employed to designate such enslaved people.[150] Slavery arose out of debt, sale by parents or oneself (due to famines), judicial decree or fear. While this could happen to a person of any varna, shudras were much more likely to be reduced to slavery.[151][139]
The Smriti contain classifications of slaves,[152] and the slaves were differentiated by origin and different disabilities and rules for manumission applied.[151][139]
Hindu Smritis are critical of slavery.[153] Slaves could be given away as gifts along with the land, which came in for criticism from the religious texts Āśvalāyana and Kātyāyana Śrautasūtras.[154] According to many Dharmasastras, release from slavery is an act of piety.[155] Slavery was considered as a sign of backwardness by the Arthashastra author Kauțilya, who provided slaves the right to property and abolished hereditary slavery, prohibited the sale and pledge of children as slaves.[156] The Arthashastra laid down norms for the State to resettle shudra cultivators into new villages and providing them with land, grain, cattle and money.[157] It also stated that aryas could not be subject to slavery and that the selling or mortgaging of a shudra was punishable unless he was a born slave.[158]
The Agni Purana forbids enslavement of prisoners.[159] The Apasthamba sutra discusses the emancipation of slaves.
Bhakti movements from the early centuries of common era, encouraged personal devotion to one divine being. They welcomed members from all backgrounds, and thus criticizing slavery by implication.[160]
British Raj
In the territories controlled by the East India Company, in South Asia, an adaptation of a Dharmaśāstra named Manusmriti, and specifically an interpretation of verse 8.415 of the Manusmriti,[161] was used to regulate the practice in Hindu communities, via what became known as the Hindu law.[162]
Budismo
In Pali language Buddhist texts, Amaya-dasa has been translated by Davids and Stede in 1925, as a "slave by birth",[163] Kila-dasa translated as a "bought slave",[164] and Amata-dasa as "one who sees Amata (Sanskrit: Amrita, nectar of immortality) or Nibbana".[165] However, dasa in ancient texts can also mean "servant".[166]
Words related to dasa are found in early Buddhist texts, such as dāso na pabbājetabbo, which Davids and Stede translate as "the slave cannot become a Bhikkhu".[167] This restriction on who could become a Buddhist monk is found in Vinaya Pitakam i.93, Digha Nikaya, Majjhima Nikāya, Tibetan Bhiksukarmavakya and Upasampadajnapti.[167][168] Schopen states that this translation of dasa as slave is disputed by scholars.[169]
Early Buddhist texts in Pali, according to R. S. Sharma, mention dāsa and kammakaras, and they show that those who failed to pay their debts were enslaved, and Buddhism did not allow debtors and slaves to join their monasteries.[147]
The Buddhist Emperor Ashoka banned slavery and renounced war.[170]
Medieval Buddhist states codified slavery, combining local customary practices with derivatives of the Vedic Manusmriti. The series of Theravada Buddhist states covering Burma and North West India observed the 14 kinds of slavery set out in the Wareru Dhammathat, while Slavery in Bhutan was regulated into the mid 20th century[171] by a local derivation of the Tibetan Buddhism Tsa Yig Chenmo.
Religión sij
Guru Nanak, first Guru of Sikhs, preached against slavery. He not only advocated human equality, by rejecting class inequalities and caste hierarchy, but also practically promoted it through the institution of Pangat and Sangat. Baba Farid also protested against slavery.[172]
Ver también
- Catholic Church and slavery
Notas
- ^ For example, Quran 4.3:[Quran 4:3] "If ye fear that ye shall not be able to deal justly with the orphans, Marry women of your choice, Two or three or four; but if ye fear that ye shall not be able to deal justly (with them), then only one, or (a captive) that your right hands possess, that will be more suitable, to prevent you from doing injustice".[96]
Quran 16.71:[Quran 16:71] "Allah has bestowed His gifts of sustenance more freely on some of you than on others: those more favoured are not going to throw back their gifts to those whom their right hands possess, so as to be equal in that respect. Will they then deny the favours of Allah?"[96]
Quran 23:5:[Quran 23:5] "And who guard their modesty, Quran 23:6: Save from their wives or the (slaves) that their right hands possess, for then they are not blameworthy."[96]
Other examples: Quran 4:25, 4:28, 24:33, 24:58, 33:50, etc[97][98] - ^ [a] HH Wilson translates dāsa in Rigvedic instances identified by R.S. Sharma, such as in verse 10.62.10, as servant rather than slave.[142][143]
[b] Michael Witzel suggests that the term dāsa in Sanskrit corresponds to North Iranian tribe; Iranian (Latin) Dahae, (Greek) Daai; and that dāsa word may be memory of Indo-Aryan migration;[144] with George Samuel stating that dāsa may be equivalent for "aborigines, servant or slave".[145]
Referencias
- ^ Jewish Encyclopedia (1901), article on Ham
- ^ Origen, Homilies, on Genesis 16:1
- ^ (edited by Ciala Kourcikidzé), The cave of treasures: Georgian version, translated by Jean-Pierre Mahé in The written corpus of eastern Christianity 526-27, part of Scriptores Iberici 23-24 (Louvain, 1992-93), 21:38-39
- ^ Goldenberg, D. M. (2003). The Curse of Ham. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, page 141.
- ^ (edited by J.P. Migne), Complete course in Patrology…Greek series, (Paris, 1857-66), on Annals 111:917B:41-43
- ^ A. Sanda, Opposcula Monophysitica Johannes Philoponi (Beirut, 1930), page 96
- ^ Haynes, S. R. (2002). Noah's Curse. New York: Oxford University Press, page 71.
- ^ Felder, C. H. (2002). Race, Racism, and the Biblical Narratives. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Augsburg Fortress, page 8.
- ^ Jerome, Homilies, 1:3:28
- ^ Exodus 22:2–3
- ^ Jewish Encyclopedia (1901), article on Slaves and Slavery
- ^ Deuteronomy 20:10–16
- ^ Deuteronomy 24:7
- ^ Exodus 20:10–16
- ^ Leviticus 25:44
- ^ Isaiah 22:2–3
- ^ 2 Kings 4:1–7
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Jewish Encyclopedia (1901), article on Slaves and Slavery
- ^ Peake's commentary on the Bible (1962), on Exodus 21:18-27
- ^ a b Deuteronomy 16:14
- ^ Exodus 20:10
- ^ Leviticus 25:43
- ^ Leviticus 25:53
- ^ Leviticus 25:39
- ^ Exodus 21:26–27
- ^ Exodus 21:20–21
- ^ a b c d e f g Maimonides, Mishneh Torah
- ^ Jewish Encyclopedia (1901), article on Avenger of Blood
- ^ Leviticus 25:47–55
- ^ Exodus 21:7
- ^ Jewish Encyclopedia (1901), article on Law, Codification of
- ^ Peake's commentary on the Bible (1962), on Exodus 21:2-11
- ^ Deuteronomy 15:12
- ^ Deuteronomy 15:13–14
- ^ Thomas Kelly Cheyne and John Sutherland Black, Encyclopaedia Biblica (1903), article on Slavery
- ^ Exodus 21:5–6
- ^ Thomas Kelly Cheyne and John Sutherland Black, Encyclopaedia Biblica (1903), article on Slavery
- ^ Leviticus 25:44–46
- ^ Ephesians 6:5–8
- ^ Colossians 3:22–25
- ^ 1 Timothy 6:1
- ^ Titus 2:9–10
- ^ 1 Peter 2:18
- ^ Religion and the Antebellum Debate Over Slavery, by John R. McKivigan, Mitchell Snay
- ^ Rev. George B. Cheever, D.D., in 1857. "God Against Slavery, p. 140, by Rev. George B. Cheever, D.D". Retrieved 23 October 2014.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
- ^ The Minor Tractates, Abadim 9:6
- ^ Gittin 1:6
- ^ Gittin, 4:6
- ^ Gittin, 46b
- ^ Jewish Encyclopedia (1901), article on Fairs
- ^ Gittin 4:6
- ^ Gittin 4:5
- ^ Kiddushin 22a
- ^ Encyclopedia Judaica, 2007, vol. 18, p. 668
- ^ Maimonides, Mishneh Torah, 6:14
- ^ Joseph Caro, Shulkhan Arukh, Yoreah De'ah 334
- ^ Encyclopedia Judaica, 2007, vol. 18, p. 670
- ^ "Torah, Slavery and the Jews". www.chabad.org. Retrieved 2020-05-24.
- ^ Melissa Snell. "Slavery in the Middle Ages". About. Retrieved 23 October 2014.
- ^ a b c d Allard, Paul (1912). "Slavery and Christianity". Catholic Encyclopedia. XIV. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 15 October 2009.
- ^ David Brion Davis (1988). The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture. Oxford University Press. p. 93.
- ^ "CHURCH FATHERS: Synod of Gangra (4th Century)". www.newadvent.org. Retrieved 2020-11-08.
- ^ Augustine of Hippo, City of God
- ^ Elaine Pagels, Adam, Eve, and the Serpent (1988), page 114
- ^ Henri Daniel-Rops, Cathedral and Crusade (1957), page 263
- ^ http://medicolegal.tripod.com/catholicsvslavery.htm Leroy J. Platten, Roman Catholic Church Opposition to Slavery (2005)
- ^ "SLAVE-TRADE - JewishEncyclopedia.com". www.jewishencyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2020-11-08.
- ^ Pijper, Frederik (1909). "The Christian Church and Slavery in the Middle Ages". The American Historical Review. American Historical Association. 14 (4): 681. doi:10.1086/ahr/14.4.675. JSTOR 1837055.
- ^ Bermejo, S.J., Luis M. (1992). Infallibity on Trial. London: Christian Classics, Inc. pp. 315–316. ISBN 0-87061-190-9.
- ^ Alessandro Farnese, Sublimus Dei (1537) - online copy
- ^ Gabriele Condulmer, Sicut Dudum (1435) - online copy
- ^ Thomas, Hugh (2003). Rivers of Gold: The Rise of the Spanish Empire. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pp. 258–262. ISBN 0-297-64563-3.
- ^ Thomas, Hugh (2003). Rivers of Gold: The Rise of the Spanish Empire. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. p. 266. ISBN 0-297-64563-3.
- ^ a b Rae, Noel (Noel Martin Douglas), author. (20 February 2018). The great stain : witnessing American slavery. ISBN 978-1-4683-1513-4. OCLC 975365825.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
- ^ "BBC News story about a belated official apology for the Society's crimes". Retrieved 23 October 2014.
- ^ Adam Hochschild, Bury the Chains, The British Struggle to Abolish Slavery (2005), page 61
- ^ Arnold Dallimore, George Whitefield: The Life and Times of the Great Evangelist of the Eighteenth Century (1980), Volume 2
- ^ Edward J. Cashin, Beloved Bethesda: A History of George Whitefield's Home for Boys (2001)
- ^ Thomas S. Kidd, “George Whitefield’s Troubled Relationship to Race and Slavery” (Christian Century, Jan 07, 2015)
- ^ Life in Medieval Times by Marjorie Rowling
- ^ Thoughts Upon Slavery, John Wesley, Published in the year 1774, John Wesley: Holiness of Heart and Life, 1996 Ruth A. Daugherty
- ^ Charles G. Finney, Memoirs (New York: A.S. Barnes, 1876), 324
- ^ Wylie, Samuel Brown, D.D., Memoir of Alexander McLeod, D.D., New York (New York: Charles Scribner, 145 Nassau Street, 1855), 51
- ^ M Ginter. "KET's Underground Railroad - Westward Expansion and the Development of Abolitionist Thought". ket.org. Retrieved 8 November 2015.
- ^ PCA Historical Center Archivist. "Alexander McLeod's stand against slavery". pcahistory.org. Retrieved 1 July 2018.
- ^ The Christian Cabinet, Dec. 14 1859
- ^ Charles H. Lippy, "Slave Christianity" in Modern Christianity to 1900: A People's History of Christianity, ed. Amanda Porterfield (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2007), 291-292.
- ^ a b Charles H. Lippy, "Slave Christianity" in Modern Christianity to 1900: A People's History of Christianity, ed. Amanda Porterfield (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2007), 295.
- ^ Charles H. Lippy, "Slave Christianity" in Modern Christianity to 1900: A People's History of Christianity, ed. Amanda Porterfield (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2007), 299-300.
- ^ Raboteau, Albert J. (2004). Slave Religion : The Invisible Institution in the Antebellum South. USA: Oxford University Press. pp. 39–75. ISBN 0-19-517412-7.
- ^ Dennard, David C. "Religion in the quarters: a study of slave preachers in the antebellum South, 1800-1860." (1984): 3465-3465.
- ^ a b Bernard Lewis (1992). Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry. Oxford University Press. pp. 5–6. ISBN 978-0-19-505326-5.
- ^ Bernard Lewis (1992). Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry. Oxford University Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-19-505326-5.
The Qur'an, like the Old and the New Testaments, assumes the existence of slavery. It regulates the practice of the institution and thus implicitly accepts it. The Prophet Muhammad and those of his Companions who could afford it themselves owned slaves; some of them acquired more by conquest.
- ^ John Ralph Willis (1985). Slaves and Slavery in Muslim Africa: The servile estate. Routledge. pp. viii–ix. ISBN 978-0-7146-3201-8.
- ^ a b W. G. Clarence-Smith (2006). Islam and the Abolition of Slavery. Oxford University Press. pp. 22–24. ISBN 978-0-19-522151-0.
- ^ a b c d Ali, Kecia (2006). Sexual ethics and Islam : feminist reflections on Qur'an, hadith, and jurisprudence. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. pp. 39–41, 168 note 7, 170 note 44. ISBN 978-1-85168-456-4.
- ^ Ali, Kecia (2006). Sexual ethics and Islam : feminist reflections on Qur'an, hadith, and jurisprudence. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. pp. 39–45. ISBN 978-1-85168-456-4.
- ^ a b Jean Allain (2012). The Legal Understanding of Slavery: From the Historical to the Contemporary. Oxford University Press. pp. 49–52 with footnotes. ISBN 978-0-19-164535-8.
- ^ Jonathan E. Brockopp (2000). Early Mālikī Law: Ibn ʻAbd Al-Ḥakam and His Major Compendium of Jurisprudence. BRILL Academic. pp. 128–130, 162–163. ISBN 90-04-11628-1.
- ^ Brockopp, Jonathan E. (2005) [1986]. "Slaves and Slavery". In Jane Dammen McAuliffe (ed.). Encyclopaedia of Quran. 5. Brill. doi:10.1163/1875-3922_q3_EQSIM_00393., Quote: "Slaves are mentioned in at least twenty-nine verses of the Qurʾān, most of these are Medinan and refer to the legal status of slaves. Seven separate terms refer to slaves, the most common of which is the phrase “that which your/their right hands own” (mā malakat aymānukum/aymānuhum/aymānuhunna/yamīnuka), found in fifteen places."
- ^ a b Brunschvig, R. (1986). "ʿAbd". In P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam. 1 (2nd ed.). Brill. p. 25. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0003.
THE KOR'AN. [...] Spiritually, the slave has the same value as the free man [...] over and over again, from beginning to end of the Preaching, it makes the emancipation of slaves a meritorious act: a work of charity (ii, 177; xc,13), to which the legal alms may be devoted (ix,60), or a deed of expiation for certain felonies (unintentional homicide: iv, 92, where "a believing slave" is specified; perjury: v, 89; Iviii, 3);
- ^ Gordon, Murray. Slavery in the Arab World (p. 35). New Amsterdam Books. Kindle Edition. Quote: "At a spiritual level, the slave was possessed of the same value as a freeman."
- ^ Bernard Lewis (1992). Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry. Oxford University Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-19-505326-5.
the believing slave is now the brother of the freeman in Islam and before God, and the superior of the free pagan or idolator (11:221).
- ^ Bernard Lewis (1992). Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry. Oxford University Press. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-19-505326-5.
The freeing of slaves is recommended both for the expiation of sins (IV:92; V:92; LVIII:3) and as an act of simple benevolence (11:177; XXIV:33; XC:13).
- ^ Bernard K. Freamon (2012). "Definitions and Conceptions of Slave Ownership in Islamic Law". In Jean Allain (ed.). The Legal Understanding of Slavery: From the Historical to the Contemporary. Oxford University Press. p. 52. ISBN 978-0-19-164535-8.
Several of these verses mandate the freeing of slaves as expiation for sin or crimes and they also establish the emancipation of a slave as a meritorious and pious act, entitling the emancipator to favorable treatment in the next life.
- ^ Forough Jahanbakhsh (2001). Islam, Democracy and Religious Modernism in Iran, 1953-2000: From Bāzargān to Soroush. BRILL. pp. 36–37. ISBN 90-04-11982-5.
- ^ Mohammed Ennaji (2013). Slavery, the State, and Islam. Cambridge University Press. p. 41. ISBN 978-0-521-11962-7., Quote: "The Koran addresses with this statement the community of free Muslims, according to many commentators, thereby establishing a distinction between statuses. In Muslim society, slavery was one of the manifestations and fundamental constituents of the social organization. The very existence of believers and infidels irreparably induces the dichotomy between free men and slaves, two contradictory and complementary statuses. There could be no infidels without believers, no paradise without hell, no free men without slaves".
- ^ Brunschvig, R. (1986). "ʿAbd". In P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam. 1 (2nd ed.). Brill. p. 25. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0003.
Tradition delights in asserting that the slave's lot was among the latest preoccupations of the Prophet. It has quite a large store of sayings and anecdotes, attributed to the Prophet or to his Companions, enjoining real kindness towards this inferior social class.
- ^ Bernard Lewis (1992). Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry. Oxford University Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-0-19-505326-5.
This point is emphasized and elaborated in innumerable hadiths (traditions), in which the Prophet is quoted as urging considerate and sometimes even equal treatment for slaves, denouncing cruelty, harshness, or even discourtesy, recommending the liberation of slaves, and reminding the Muslims that his apostolate was to free and slave alike.
- ^ Chouki El Hamel (2014). Black Morocco: A History of Slavery, Race, and Islam. Cambridge University Press. p. 36. ISBN 9781139620048.
These verses recommend gradual steps to end slavery. As Muhammad Asad points out, "the institution of slavery is envisaged in the Quran as a mere historic phenomenon that must in time be abolished." Indeed, the Qur'anic prescriptions of manumission are expressed in the Qur'an as pious deeds, clearly implying that ending slavery was a crucial goal in Islam at times when slavery formed a fundamental part of human culture.
- ^ Chouki El Hamel (2014). Black Morocco: A History of Slavery, Race, and Islam. Cambridge University Press. p. 39. ISBN 9781139620048.
Ironically the Hadith did not specifically advocate the abolition of slavery; instead the Hadith was used to create practical advancement in the history of slavery. I want to illustrate this by citing examples from as-Sahih of al-Bukhari that are consistent or contradictory with the message of the Qur'an.
- ^ a b c Dror Ze’evi (2009). "Slavery". In John L. Esposito (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 79.
- ^ Humphrey J. Fisher (2001). Slavery in the History of Muslim Black Africa. New York University Press. pp. 14–16. ISBN 978-0-8147-2716-4.
- ^ Brunschvig, R. (1986). "ʿAbd". In P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam. 1 (2nd ed.). Brill. p. 29. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0003.
the schools object to putting a free man to death for killing a slave, with the noteworthy exception of the Hanafis (and also of that illustrious, albeit somewhat dissident, Hanbali, Ibn Taymiyya [...]), and even they exempt the man who kills his own slave or one belonging to his son
- ^ Peters, Rudolph (2006). Crime and Punishment in Islamic Law: Theory and Practice from the Sixteenth to the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge University Press. p. 47.
The Hanafites, however, follow a different criterion with regard to retaliation for homicide. For them the permanent protection of life ('isma) is the basis of the required equivalence and not the value of the bloodprice. Thus in Hanafite law a Muslim may be executed for killing a dhimmı (but not for killing a musta'min because his protection is only temporary), and a free man for killing a slave.
- ^ Brunschvig, R. (1986). "ʿAbd". In P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam. 1 (2nd ed.). Brill. p. 29. doi:10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0003.
- ^ W. G. Clarence-Smith (2006). Islam and the Abolition of Slavery. Oxford University Press. pp. 25–26. ISBN 978-0-19-522151-0.
- ^ Kecia Ali (2010). Marriage and Slavery in Early Islam. Harvard University Press. pp. 6–7. ISBN 978-0-674-05917-7.
- ^ a b Carl Skutsch (2013). Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities. Routledge. pp. 1114–1115. ISBN 978-1-135-19388-1., Quote: "Islam and Slavery. (...) Slaves were obtained through purchase, conquest, and as tribute from vassal states. Children of slaves were also slaves."
- ^ Paul E. Lovejoy (2011). Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa. Cambridge University Press. pp. 16–17. ISBN 978-1-139-50277-1.
- ^ Paul E. Lovejoy (2011). Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa. Cambridge University Press. pp. 16–18. ISBN 978-1-139-50277-1.; Quote: "In Islamic tradition, slavery was perceived as a means of converting non-Muslims. One task of the master was religious instruction and theoretically Muslims could not be enslaved. Conversion (of a non-Muslim to Islam) did not automatically lead to emancipation, but assimilation into Muslim society was deemed a prerequisite for emancipation (...)"
- ^ Mohammed Ennaji (2013). Slavery, the State, and Islam. Cambridge University Press. p. 54. ISBN 978-0-521-11962-7.
- ^ Bernard Lewis (2011). Islam in History: Ideas, People, and Events in the Middle East. Open Court. p. 252. ISBN 978-0-8126-9757-5.
- ^ Jean Allain (2012). The Legal Understanding of Slavery: From the Historical to the Contemporary. Oxford University Press. pp. 52–55 with footnotes. ISBN 978-0-19-164535-8.
- ^ Bernard Lewis (1992). Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry. Oxford University Press. pp. 5–8, 85–86. ISBN 978-0-19-505326-5.; Quote: "They [Dhimmis] were not permitted to own Muslim slaves; and if a slave owned by a dhimmi embraced Islam, his owner was legally obliged to free or sell him." (...) "Non-Muslims are of course excluded. But that is not all. A convert is not as good as the son of a convert; the son of a convert is not as good as the grandson of a convert. Here too the rule is limited to three generations, after which all are equal in their Islam".
- ^ Bernard Lewis (1992). Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry. Oxford University Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-0-19-505326-5.; Quote: "In what might be called civil matters, the slave was a chattel with no legal powers or rights whatsoever. He could not enter into a contract, hold property or inherit. If he incurred a fine, his owner was responsible. He was, however, distinctly better off, in the matter of rights, than a Greek or Roman slave"
- ^ Chirag Ali (2002). Charles Kurzman (ed.). Modernist Islam, 1840-1940: A Sourcebook. Oxford University Press. p. 288. ISBN 9780195154689.
- ^ Ron Shaham (2010). The Expert Witness in Islamic Courts. University of Chicago Press. pp. 68–71. ISBN 978-0-226-74935-8.
- ^ W. G. Clarence-Smith (2006). Islam and the Abolition of Slavery. Oxford University Press. pp. 20–21, 73–74. ISBN 978-0-19-522151-0.
- ^ Jean Allain (2012). The Legal Understanding of Slavery: From the Historical to the Contemporary. Oxford University Press. pp. 43–45, 52–53. ISBN 978-0-19-966046-9.
- ^ André Wink (1997). Al-Hind the Making of the Indo-Islamic World. BRILL Academic. pp. 3, 90–92. ISBN 90-04-10236-1.
- ^ Ira M. Lapidus (2014). A History of Islamic Societies. Cambridge University Press. pp. 86, 177–184, 323–325. ISBN 978-1-139-99150-6.
- ^ ""Bahá'u'lláh's Tablets to the Rulers" by Juan R.I. Cole, Department of History, University of Michigan". Retrieved 23 October 2014.
- ^ ""A Description of the Kitáb-i-Aqdas" page 14 by Shoghí Effendí Rabbání". Retrieved 23 October 2014.
- ^ ""The Kitáb-i-Aqdas" Paragraph 72 by Bahá'u'lláh". Retrieved 23 October 2014.
- ^ Nader Saiedi; Translated by Omid Ghaemmaghami (2011). "The Ethiopian King". Bahaʼi Studies Review. 17: 181–186. doi:10.1386/bsr.17.181_7. Retrieved Sep 7, 2016.
- ^ Christopher Buck (January 13, 2014). "Baha'u'llah Frees the Slaves". Bahaiteachings.org. Retrieved Sep 7, 2016.
- ^ Christopher Buck (September 24, 2014). "Liberating Every Slave". Bahaiteachings.org. Retrieved Sep 7, 2016.
- ^ a b c Kumar 1993, p. 114.
- ^ R. S. Sharma 1958, pp. (1990:24-26).
- ^ West 2008, p. 182.
- ^ Rigveda 10.62.10 HH Wilson (Translator), Trubner & Co, page 167
- ^ Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura- in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, page 162
- ^ Witzel, Michael (2001). "Autochthonous Aryans?". Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies. 7 (3): 16.
- ^ Samuel, Geoffrey (2008), The Origins of Yoga and Tantra, Cambridge University Press, p. 52, ISBN 978-0-521-69534-3
- ^ R. S. Sharma 1958, pp. 22-24 (1990:24-26).
- ^ a b R. S. Sharma 1958, p. (1990:103).
- ^ a b c R. S. Sharma 1958, p. 45 (1990:50-51).
- ^ R. S. Sharma 1958, p. 48 (1990:53).
- ^ R. S. Sharma 1958, p. 91 (1990:103).
- ^ a b R. S. Sharma 1958, p. 92 (1990:104).
- ^ Upinder Singh (2008), A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century, p.508
- ^ Subramaniam Mani, Venkateshwara. Handbook of International Humanitarian Law in South Asia. Oxford University Press. p. 36.
- ^ R. S. Sharma 1958, p. 46 (1990:51-52).
- ^ Adoor K. K. Ramachandran Nair (1986). Slavery in Kerala. Mittal Publications. p. 2.
- ^ Raj Kumar Sen, Ratan Lal Basu. Economics in Arthaśāstra. Deep and Deep Publications. p. 240.
- ^ R. S. Sharma 1958, p. 147 (1990:161-163).
- ^ R. S. Sharma 1958, p. 163 (1990:177).
- ^ Harbans Singh Bhatia (1977). International Law and Practice in Ancient India. Deep & Deep Publications. p. 106.
- ^ Religions and the abolition of slavery - a comparative approach by William Gervase Clarence-Smith
- ^ Manusmriti with the Commentary of Medhatithi by Ganganatha Jha, 1920, ISBN 8120811550
- ^ John Griffith (1986), What is legal pluralism?, The Journal of Legal Pluralism and Unofficial Law, Volume 18, Issue 24, pages 1-55
- ^ Thomas William Rhys Davids, William Stede (2015 Reprint, Original: 1925), Pali-English Dictionary, 2nd Edition, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120811447, page 104
- ^ Thomas William Rhys Davids, William Stede (2015 Reprint, Original: 1925), Pali-English Dictionary, 2nd Edition, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120811447, page 217
- ^ Thomas William Rhys Davids, William Stede (2015 Reprint, Original: 1925), Pali-English Dictionary, 2nd Edition, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120811447, page 73
- ^ Gregory Schopen (2004), Buddhist Monks and Business Matters, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 978-0824827748, page 201
- ^ a b Thomas William Rhys Davids and William Stede (2015 Reprint, Original: 1925), Pali-English Dictionary, 2nd Edition, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120811447, page 320
- ^ Gregory Schopen (2010), On Some Who Are Not Allowed to Become Buddhist Monks or Nuns: An Old List of Types of Slaves or Unfree Laborers, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 130, No. 2, pages 225-234
- ^ Gregory Schopen (2010), On Some Who Are Not Allowed to Become Buddhist Monks or Nuns: An Old List of Types of Slaves or Unfree Laborers, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 130, No. 2, page 226
- ^ The Multimedia Encyclopedia of Women in Today's World, p.130, SAGE publication, Mary Zeiss Stange, Carol K. Oyster, Jane E. Sloan
- ^ Wangchuk, Tashi. "CHANGE IN THE LAND USE SYSTEM IN BHUTAN: ECOLOGY, HISTORY, CULTURE, AND POWER" (PDF). Retrieved 5 December 2019.
- ^ Selvan, Selvan (2010). Human Rights Education: Modern Approaches And Strategies. Concept Publishing Company. pp. 43–44. ISBN 9788180696794.
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- Kumar, Dharma (1993), "Colonialism, Bondage and Caste in British India", in Klein, Martin A. (ed.), Breaking the Chains: Slavery, Bondage, and Emancipation in Modern Africa and Asia, Univ of Wisconsin Press, ISBN 978-0-299-13754-0
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enlaces externos
- William Gervase Clarence-Smith (2010) Religions and the abolition of slavery - a comparative approach. Global Economic History Network (GEHN)