Escultura en el subcontinente indio

Escultura en el subcontinente indio

Arte indio
Por religión
hindú Jain Budista
Por período
Valle del Indo Maurya Greco-budista Kushan Gupta Pandyan Pallava Chola Indoislámico Mughal
Por técnica
Pinturas rupestres Arquitectura excavada en la roca Arquitectura antigua Arquitectura Escultura Cuadro
Por localizacion
Bhimbetka Mathura Gandhara Sanchi Bharhut Cuevas de Barabar Ajanta Khajuraho
Ver también
Historia india cultura india Arte asiático Portal de artes visuales
v t mi

La escultura en el subcontinente indio , en parte debido al clima del subcontinente indio dificulta la supervivencia a largo plazo de los materiales orgánicos, consiste esencialmente en la escultura de piedra, metal o terracota . Está claro que hubo una gran cantidad de pintura y escultura en madera y marfil durante estos períodos, pero solo quedan unas pocas supervivencias. Las principales religiones indias , después de comienzos vacilantes, habían desarrollado el uso de la escultura religiosa alrededor del comienzo de la Era Común , y el uso de la piedra se estaba generalizando cada vez más.

La primera escultura conocida en el subcontinente indio es de la civilización del valle del Indo , y una tradición más extendida de pequeñas figuras de terracota, en su mayoría de mujeres o animales, que la antecede. ^[1] Después del colapso de la civilización del valle del Indo, hay pocos registros de esculturas más grandes hasta la era budista, aparte de un tesoro de figuras de cobre de (algo controvertido) c. 1500 a. C. de Daimabad . ^[2] Por lo tanto, la gran tradición de la escultura monumental india en piedra parece comenzar relativamente tarde, con el reinado de Asoka de 270 a 232 a. C. y los pilares de Ashoka.erigió alrededor de la India, llevando sus edictos y coronado por famosas esculturas de animales, en su mayoría leones, de los cuales seis sobreviven. ^[3] Grandes cantidades de escultura figurativa, en su mayoría en relieve, sobreviven de las estupas de peregrinación budistas tempranas, sobre todo Sanchi ; estos probablemente se desarrollaron a partir de una tradición que usaba madera que también abrazó el hinduismo . ^[4]

Durante el siglo II al I a.C. en el extremo norte de la India, en el arte greco-budista de Gandhara de lo que ahora es el sur de Afganistán y el norte de Pakistán , las esculturas se volvieron más explícitas, representando episodios de la vida y las enseñanzas de Buda.

Las esculturas hindúes, jainistas y budistas de arenisca rosa de Mathura de los siglos I al III d.C. reflejaron tanto las tradiciones indias nativas como las influencias occidentales recibidas a través del arte greco-budista de Gandhara, y establecieron efectivamente las bases para la posterior escultura religiosa india. ^[4] El estilo se desarrolló y difundió en la mayor parte de la India bajo el Imperio Gupta (c. 320-550), que sigue siendo un período "clásico" para la escultura india, que cubre las cuevas de Ellora anteriores , ^[5] aunque las cuevas de Elefanta son probablemente un poco más tarde. ^[6]La escultura posterior a gran escala sigue siendo casi exclusivamente religiosa, y en general bastante conservadora, a menudo volviendo a simples poses frontales para las deidades, aunque los espíritus asistentes como apsaras y yakshi a menudo tienen poses sensualmente curvas. La talla suele ser muy detallada, con un intrincado respaldo detrás de la figura principal en alto relieve. Los célebres bronces de la dinastía Chola (c. 850-1250) del sur de la India , muchos diseñados para ser llevados en procesiones, incluyen la forma icónica de Shiva como Nataraja , ^[7] con las enormes tallas de granito de Mahabalipuram ^{[8] que} datan de la anterior dinastía Pallava .^[9]

Escultura de la edad de bronce

El sello Pashupati , que muestra una figura sentada, rodeada de animales.

La primera escultura conocida en el subcontinente indio es de la civilización del valle del Indo (3300-1700 a. C.). Estos incluyen a la famosa pequeña bailarina de bronce . Sin embargo, estas figuras de bronce y piedra son raras y superadas en número por las figurillas de cerámica y los sellos de piedra, a menudo de animales o deidades muy finamente representados. ^[10]

• Sacerdote rey de Mohenjo daro

• Torso de jaspe harappa

• Escultura de bronce de niña bailando

• Estatua de niña bailarina, Mohenjo Daro

• Carro de Daimabad

• Mujer montando dos toros (bronce), de Kausambi, c. 2000-1750 a. C.

Arte pre-Maurya

Artefacto antropomorfológico. Cultura del tesoro de cobre (segundo milenio a. C.). Museo Mathura .

Algunas representaciones muy tempranas de deidades parecen aparecer en el arte de la civilización del valle del Indo (3300 a. C. - 1700 a. C.), pero el siguiente milenio, que coincide con el período védico , carece de tales restos. ^[11] Se ha sugerido que la religión védica primitiva se centró exclusivamente en la adoración de puramente "fuerzas elementales de la naturaleza por medio de elaborados sacrificios", que no se prestaban fácilmente a representaciones antropomorfológicas. ^[12]

Figurilla de terracota, Mathura, siglo IV a. C.

Varios artefactos pueden pertenecer a la cultura del tesoro de cobre (segundo milenio a. C.), algunos de ellos sugieren características antropomorfológicas. ^{[13] Las} interpretaciones varían en cuanto al significado exacto de estos artefactos, o incluso la cultura y la periodización a la que pertenecían. ^[13] Algunos ejemplos de expresión artística también aparecen en diseños de cerámica abstracta durante la cultura de la cerámica negra y roja (1450-1200 a. C.) o la cultura de la cerámica pintada de gris (1200-600 a. C.), con hallazgos en un área amplia. ^[13]

La mayoría de los primeros hallazgos que siguieron a este período corresponden a lo que se denomina el "segundo período de urbanización" a mediados del primer milenio a. C., después de una brecha de aproximadamente mil años después del colapso de la civilización del valle del Indo . ^[13] La representación antropomórfica de varias deidades aparentemente comenzó a mediados del primer milenio a. C., posiblemente como consecuencia de la afluencia de estímulos extranjeros iniciada con la conquista aqueménida del valle del Indo y el surgimiento de religiones locales alternativas que desafían al vedismo . como el budismo y el jainismo y los cultos populares locales. ^[11]Algunos artefactos rudimentarios de terracota pueden datar de este período, justo antes de la era Maurya. ^[14]

Arte del período Maurya

La capital de los leones de Asoka , emblema nacional de la India , el ejemplo más famoso del arte mauryan.

Artículo principal: arte Maurya

El arte sobreviviente del Imperio Maurya que gobernó, al menos en teoría, sobre la mayor parte del subcontinente indio entre 322 y 185 a. C. es principalmente escultura. Había un arte patrocinado por la corte imperial patrocinado por los emperadores, especialmente Ashoka , y luego un estilo "popular" producido por todos los demás.

Los restos más significativos del arte monumental de Maurya incluyen los restos del palacio real y la ciudad de Pataliputra , una barandilla monolítica en Sarnath , el Bodhimandala o el altar que descansa sobre cuatro pilares en Bodhgaya , los chaitya -halls excavados en la roca en las cuevas de Barabar cerca de Gaya , los pilares que llevan el edicto y el que lleva el edicto, las esculturas de animales que coronan los pilares con relieves animales y botánicos que decoran los ábacos de los capiteles y la mitad frontal de la representación de un elefante tallado en redondo en una roca viva en Dhauli . ^[15]

This period marked the appearance of Indian stone sculpture; much previous sculpture was probably in wood and has not survived. The elaborately carved animal capitals surviving on from some Pillars of Ashoka are the best known works, and among the finest, above all the Lion Capital of Ashoka from Sarnath that is now the National Emblem of India. Coomaraswamy distinguishes between court art and a more popular art during the Mauryan period. Court art is represented by the pillars and their capitals,^[16] and surviving popular art by some stone pieces, and many smaller works in terracotta.

The highly polished surface of court sculpture is often called Mauryan polish. However this seems not to be entirely reliable as a diagnostic tool for a Mauryan date, as some works from considerably later periods also have it. The Didarganj Yakshi, now most often thought to be from the 2nd century CE, is an example.

• The Pataliputra capital, showing both Achaemenid and Greek influence, with volute, bead and reel, meander and honeysuckle designs. Early Mauryan period, 4th-3rd century BC.

• Masarh lion sculpture

• Mauryan statue 3rd-2nd century BCE

• Lohanipur torso

• Yaksha statue

Art of the Shunga period (180-80 BCE)

Mudgarpani ("Mace-holder") Yaksha from Bharana Kalan, northwest of Mathura. Art of Mathura, 100 BCE.^[17] This colossal statue in the round is 1.96 meters tall.^[17] Mathura Museum, GMM 87.145

Terracotta arts executed during pre-Mauryan and Mauryan periods are further refined during Shunga periods and Chandraketugarh emerge as an important center for the terracotta arts of Shunga period. Mathura which has its basis in the pre-Mauryan period also emerges as an important center for Jain, Hindu and Buddhist art.

• Bharhut stupa, Shunga horseman

• Shunga Yakshi

• Chandraketugarh figurine

• Baluster-holding yakṣa, Madhya Pradesh, Shunga period (2nd–1st century BCE). Guimet Museum

• Male figure, Chandraketugarh, India, 2nd-1st century BCE

Satavahana art

The Satavahana dynasty ruled much of the Deccan and sometimes other areas, including Maharashtra, between about the 2nd-century BCE and 2nd century CE. They were a Buddhist dynasty, and the most significant remains of their sculptural patronage are the Sanchi and Amaravati Stupas,^[18] along with a number of rock-cut complexes.

Sanchi stupas were constructed by Emperor Ashoka and later expanded by Shungas and Satavahanas. Major work on decorating the site with Torana gateway and railing was done by Satavahana Empire.

• Sanchi gateway

• Carved reliefs of Sanchi gateway

• Sanchi Torana

• Satavahana relief regarding the city of Kusinagara in the war over the Buddha's relics, South Gate, Stupa no. 1, Sanchi

Cave temples

Between the 2nd century BCE and 2nd century CE under Satavahanas, several Buddhist caves propped up along the coastal areas of Maharashtra and these cave temples were decorated with Satavahana era sculptures and hence not only some of the earliest art depictions, but evidence of ancient Indian architecture.

• Kanheri caves Buddha statue

• Kanheri caves statue

Amaravathi art

Main article: Amaravati Stupa

The Amaravati school of Buddhist art was one of the three major Buddhist sculpture centres along with Mathura and Gandhara and flourished under Satavahanas, many limestone sculptures and tablets which once were plastered Buddhist stupas provide a fascinating insight into major early Buddhist school of arts.

• Amaravati Marbles, fragments of Buddhist stupa

• Head of a lion, from Gateway pillar at the Amaravati Stupa

• Scroll supported by Indian Yaksha, Amaravati, 2nd–3rd century CE

• Mara's assault on the Buddha, 2nd century CE, Amaravati

Early South India

Shiva standing on Apasmara, carved on the Gudimallam Lingam, 3rd to 1st century BCE.

Stone sculpture was much later to arrive in South India than the north, and the earliest period is only represented by the lingam with a standing figure of Shiva in the village of Gudimallam, in the southern tip of Andhra Pradesh. The "mysteriousness" of this "lies in the total absence so far of any object in an even remotely similar manner within many hundreds of miles, and indeed anywhere in South India".^[19] It is some 5 ft in height and one foot thick; the penis is relatively naturalistic, with the glans shown clearly. The stone is local, and the style described by Harle as "Satavahana-related".^[19] It is dated to the 3rd century BCE,^[20] or 2nd/1st century BCE.^[19]

Though the hardness of local granites, the relatively limited penetration of Buddhism and Jainism in the deep south, and a presumed persistent preference for wood have all been proposed as factors in the late development of stone architecture and sculpture in the south, "the mystery remains".^[21] The form of the Gudimallam linga, for example, would be a natural one to evolve in wood, using a straight tree trunk very efficiently, but to say that it did so is pure speculation in our present state of knowledge. Wooden sculpture, and architecture, has remained common in Kerala, where stone is hard to come by, but this means survivals are very largely limited to the last few centuries.^[22]

Kushana art

Main article: Kushan art

Seated Bodhisattva with attendants
("Year 4 of the Great King Kanishka")

The "Kimbell seated Bodhisattva" with attendants, 131 CE, Mathura. Kimbell Art Museum

On the pedestal, Brahmi inscription:
𑁕
Maharajasya Kanishkasya Sam 4
"Year 4 of the Great King Kanishka"
^[23][24][25]

Kushan art is highlighted by the appearance of extensive Buddhist arts in the form of Mathuras, Gandharan and Amaravathi schools of art

Mathura art

Main article: Art of Mathura

Mathura art flourished in the ancient city of Mathura and predominantly red sandstone has been used in making Buddhist and Jain sculptures.

• Four-fold Jain image with Suparshvanath and three other Tirthankaras - Circa 1st Century CE

• Spotted red sandstone Bodhisattwa, Mathura Art, Kushan Empire, 2nd century CE

• Yakshi Mathura

• Statue of a man, Mathura Lucknow Museum

• Sibijataka and other Buddhist legends, Mathura art, 2nd century CE

• Bhutesvara Yakshis, reliefs from Mathura, 2nd century CE

Gandharan art

Main article: Greco-Buddhist art

Heracles depiction of Vajrapani as the protector of the Buddha, 2nd century CE, Gandhara, British Museum.

Greco-Buddhist art is the artistic manifestation of Greco-Buddhism, a cultural syncretism between the Classical Greek culture and Buddhism, which developed over a period of close to 1000 years in Central Asia, between the conquests of Alexander the Great in the 4th century BCE, and the Islamic conquests of the 7th century CE. Greco-Buddhist art is characterized by the strong idealistic realism of Hellenistic art and the first representations of the Buddha in human form, which have helped define the artistic (and particularly, sculptural) canon for Buddhist art throughout the Asian continent up to the present. Though dating is uncertain, it appears that strongly Hellenistic styles lingered in the East for several centuries after they had declined around the Mediterranean, as late as the 5th century CE. Some aspects of Greek art were adopted while others did not spread beyond the Greco-Buddhist area; in particular the standing figure, often with a relaxed pose and one leg flexed, and the flying cupids or victories, who became popular across Asia as apsaras. Greek foliage decoration was also influential, with Indian versions of the Corinthian capital appearing.^[26]

Although India had a long sculptural tradition and a mastery of rich iconography, the Buddha was never represented in human form before this time, but only through some of his symbols.^[27] This may be because Gandharan Buddhist sculpture in modern Afghanistan displays Greek and Persian artistic influence. Artistically, the Gandharan school of sculpture is said to have contributed wavy hair, drapery covering both shoulders, shoes and sandals, acanthus leaf decorations, etc.

The origins of Greco-Buddhist art are to be found in the Hellenistic Greco-Bactrian kingdom (250 BCE – 130 BCE), located in today's Afghanistan, from which Hellenistic culture radiated into the Indian subcontinent with the establishment of the small Indo-Greek kingdom (180 BCE-10 BCE). Under the Indo-Greeks and then the Kushans, the interaction of Greek and Buddhist culture flourished in the area of Gandhara, in today's northern Pakistan, before spreading further into India, influencing the art of Mathura, and then the Hindu art of the Gupta empire, which was to extend to the rest of South-East Asia. The influence of Greco-Buddhist art also spread northward towards Central Asia, strongly affecting the art of the Tarim Basin and the Dunhuang Caves, and ultimately the sculpted figure in China, Korea, and Japan.^[28]

• Gandhara frieze with devotees, holding plantain leaves, in purely Hellenistic style, inside Corinthian columns, 1st–2nd century CE. Buner, Swat, Pakistan. Victoria and Albert Museum

• Fragment of the wind god Boreas, Hadda, Afghanistan.

• Stucco Buddha head from Hadda, Afghanistan, 3rd–4th centuries. This was painted.

• Gandhara Poseidon (Ancient Orient Museum)

• The Buddhist gods Pancika (left) and Hariti (right), 3rd century, Gandhara

• Taller Buddha of Bamiyan, c. 547 AD., in 1963 and in 2008 after they were dynamited and destroyed in March 2001 by the Taliban

Gupta period

Vishnu sleeping, protected by Shesha, Dashavatara Temple, Deogarh

Gupta art is the style of art, surviving almost entirely as sculpture, developed under the Gupta Empire, which ruled most of northern India, with its peak between about 300 and 480 CE, surviving in much reduced form until c. 550. The Gupta period is generally regarded as a classic peak and golden age of North Indian art for all the major religious groups.^[29] Although painting was evidently widespread, the surviving works are almost all religious sculpture. The period saw the emergence of the iconic carved stone deity in Hindu art, while the production of the Buddha-figure and Jain tirthankara figures continued to expand, the latter often on a very large scale. The traditional main centre of sculpture was Mathura, which continued to flourish, with the art of Gandhara, the centre of Greco-Buddhist art just beyond the northern border of Gupta territory, continuing to exert influence. Other centres emerged during the period, especially at Sarnath. Both Mathura and Sarnath exported sculpture to other parts of northern India.

It is customary to include under "Gupta art" works from areas in north and central India that were not actually under Gupta control, in particular art produced under the Vakataka dynasty who ruled the Deccan c. 250–500.^[30] Their region contained very important sites such as the Ajanta Caves and Elephanta Caves, both mostly created in this period, and the Ellora Caves which were probably begun then. Also, although the empire lost its western territories by about 500, the artistic style continued to be used across most of northern India until about 550,^[31] and arguably around 650.^[32] It was then followed by the "Post-Gupta" period, with (to a reducing extent over time) many similar characteristics; Harle ends this around 950.^[33]Three main schools of Gupta sculpture are often recognised, based in Mathura, Varanasi/Sarnath and to a lesser extent Nalanda.^[34] The distinctively different stones used for sculptures exported from the main centres described below aids identification greatly.^[35]

Elephanta Caves, triple-bust (trimurti) of Shiva, 18 feet (5.5 m) tall, c. 550.

Both Buddhist and Hindu sculpture concentrate on large, often near life-size, figures of the major deities, respectively Buddha, Vishnu and Shiva. The dynasty had a partiality to Vishnu, who now features more prominently, where the Kushan imperial family generally had preferred Shiva. Minor figures such as yakshi, which had been very prominent in preceding periods, are now smaller and less frequently represented, and the crowded scenes illustrating Jataka tales of the Buddha's previous lives are rare.^[36] When scenes include one of the major figures and other less important ones, there is a great difference in scale, with the major figures many times larger. This is also the case in representations of incidents from the Buddha's life, which earlier had showed all the figures on the same scale.^[37]

The lingam was the central murti in most temples. Some new figures appear, including personifications of the Ganges and Yamuna rivers, not yet worshipped, but placed on either side of entrances; these were "the two great rivers encompassing the Gupta heartland".^[38] The main bodhisattva appear prominently in sculpture for the first time,^[39] as in the paintings at Ajanta. Buddhist, Hindu and Jain sculpture all show the same style,^[40] and there is a "growing likeness of form" between figures from the different religions, which continued after the Gupta period.^[31]

The Indian stylistic tradition of representing the body as a series of "smooth, very simplified planes" is continued, though poses, especially in the many standing figures, are subtly tilted and varied, in contrast to the "columnar rigidity" of earlier figures.^[41] The detail of facial parts, hair, headgear, jewellery and the haloes behind figures are carved very precisely, giving a pleasing contrast with the emphasis on broad swelling masses in the body.^[42] Deities of all the religions are shown in a calm and majestic meditative style; "perhaps it is this all-pervading inwardness that accounts for the unequalled Gupta and post-Gupta ability to communicate higher spiritual states".^[31]

• Hindu Gupta terracotta relief, 5th century CE, of Krishna Killing the Horse Demon Keshi

• Buddha from Sarnath, 5–6th century CE

• Head of Vishnu from Vidisha near Udayagiri, Central India, 4th century

• Vishnu in the form of Varaha, Udayagiri caves, 5th century

Medieval, c. 600 onwards

Pala basalt statue of Lalita flanked by Gaṇeśa and Kārttikeya, 11th century

Pala and Sena empires

The Pala Empire ruled a large area in north and east India between the 8th and 12th centuries CE, mostly later inherited by the Sena Empire. During this time, the style of sculpture changed from "Post-Gupta" to a distinctive style that was widely influential in other areas and later centuries. Deity figures became more rigid in posture, very often standing with straight legs close together, and figures were often heavily loaded with jewellery; they very often have multiple arms, a convention allowing them to hold many attributes and display mudras. The typical form for temple images is a slab with a main figure, rather over half life-size, in very high relief, surrounded by smaller attendant figures, who might have freer tribhanga poses. Critics have found the style tending towards over-elaboration. The quality of the carving is generally very high, with crisp, precise detail. In east India, facial features tend to become sharp.^[43]

Though the Pala monarchs are recorded as patronizing religious establishments in a general sense, their patronage of any specific work of art cannot be documented by the surviving evidence, which is mostly inscriptions.^[44] However, there are much larger numbers of images that are dated, as compared to other Indian regions and periods, helping greatly the reconstruction of stylistic development.^[45]

Much larger numbers of smaller bronze groups of similar composition have survived than from previous periods. Probably the numbers produced were increasing. These were mostly made for domestic shrines of the well-off, and from monasteries. Gradually, Hindu figures come to outnumber Buddhist ones, reflecting the terminal decline of Indian Buddhism, even in east India, its last stronghold.^[46]

Temples of Khajuraho

Further information: Khajuraho Group of Monuments

Intricately carved sculptures on the exterior of one of the temples of Khajuraho.^[47]

The temples of Khajuraho, a complex of Hindu and Jain temples, were constructed from the 9th to the 11th centuries by the Chandela dynasty. They are considered one of the best examples of Indian art and architecture.^[47]

The temples have a rich display of intricately carved sculptures. While they are famous for their erotic sculptures, sexual themes cover less than a tenth of the temple sculpture. The sculptures depict various aspects the everyday life, mythical stories as well as symbolic display of various secular and spiritual values important in Hindu tradition.^[47]

Dynasties of South India

Shiva as Nataraja, Chola period.

Main article: Chola art and architecture

After the Gudimallam lingam (see above), the earliest dynasty of southern India to leave stone sculpture on a large scale was the long-lasting Pallava dynasty which ruled much of south-east India between 275 and 897, although the major sculptural projects come from the later part of the period. A number of significant Hindu temples survive, with rich sculptural decoration. Initially these tend to be rock-cut, as are most of the Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram (7th and 8th centuries), perhaps the best-known examples of Pallava art and architecture Many of these exploit natural outcrops of rock, which are carved away on all sides until a building is left. Others, like the Shore Temple, are constructed in the usual way, and others cut into a rock face like most other rock-cut architecture. The Descent of the Ganges at Mahabalipuram, is "the largest and most elaborate sculptural composition in India",^[48] a relief carved on a near-vertical rock face some 29 metres (86 feet) wide, featuring hundreds of figures, including a life-size elephant (late 7th century).

Other Pallava temples with sculpture surviving in good condition are the Kailasanathar Temple, Vaikunta Perumal Temple and others at Kanchipuram,^[49] and the cave temples at Mamandur. The Pallava style in stone reliefs is influenced by the hardness of the stone mostly used; the relief is less deep and detail such as jewellery minimized, compared to further north. The figures are more slender and "delicately built and project sweetness and unmannered delicacy and refinement";^[50] much the same figure type is continued in Chola sculpture in both stone and bronze. In large narrative panels some of the subjects are distinctively Tamil, such as Korravai (Durga as goddess of victory), and Somaskanda, a seated family group of Shiva, his consort Parvati and Skanda (Murugan) as a child.^[51]

Gopuram of the Kapaleeshwarar Temple, Tamil Nadu, densely packed with rows of painted plaster figures, 1906.

The "imperial" Chola dynasty begins about 850, controlling much of the south, with a slow decline from about 1150. Large numbers of temples were constructed, which mostly suffered far less from Muslim destruction than those further north. These were heavily decorated with stone relief sculpture, both large narrative panels and single figures, mostly in niches on the outside. The Pallava style was broadly continued.

Chola bronzes, the largest mostly about half life-size, are some of the most iconic and famous sculptures of India, using a similar elegant but powerful style to the stone pieces. They were created using the lost wax technique. The sculptures were of Shiva in various avatars with his consort Parvati, and Vishnu with his consort Lakshmi, among other deities.^[52] Even large bronzes had the advantage that they were light enough to be used in processions for festivals.

The most iconic among these is the bronze figure of Shiva as Nataraja, the lord of dance. In his upper right hand he holds the damaru, the drum of creation.^[53] In his upper left hand he holds the agni, the flame of destruction. His lower right hand is lifted in the gesture of the abhaya mudra. His right foot stands upon the demon Apasmara, the embodiment of ignorance.^[54]

The Vijayanagara Empire was the last major Hindu empire, constructing very large temples at Hampi, the capital, of which much remains in generally good condition, despite the Mughal army spending a year destroying the city after its fall.^[55] Temples are often highly decorated, in a style that further elaborates the late Chola style, and was influential for later South Indian temples. Rows of horses rearing out from columns became a favourite and spectacular device. By the end of the period hugely expanded multi-storey gopurams had become the most prominent feature of templeas, as they have remained in the major temples of the south. The large numbers of figures on these were now mostly made from brightly-painted stucco.

Early Modern period (1206-1858)

The period was dominated by Islamic rulers, who not only did not produce figurative sculpture themselves, but whose armies, especially in the initial conquests, destroyed vast amounts of existing religious sculpture, which considerably discouraged the production of new figures.

Nonetheless, religious sculpture continued, especially in the far south, where the larger temples continued to expand in a rather competitive fashion. The late medieval southern innovation of towering gopuram gateways continued, and these were covered with large sculptures, in recent centuries mainly in brightly painted stucco. Very large halls were constructed for the large numbers of visitors in temples, sometimes filled with spectacular sculpture, like the famous row of life-size rearing horses at the Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam from the 17th century.

British Colonial period (1858-1947)

The Statue of Henry Hardinge, Governor-General of India

During this period, European styled statues were erected in city squares, as monuments to the British Empire's power. Statues of Queen Victoria, George V, and various Governor-Generals of India were erected. Such statues were removed from public places after independence, and placed within museums. However, some still stand at their original location, such as Statue of Queen Victoria, Bangalore.

Post-Independence (1947 - present)

Modern Indian sculptors include D.P Roy Choudhury, Ramkinkar Baij, Sankho Chaudhuri and Chintamoni Kar.^[56] The National Gallery of modern Art has a large collection of modern Indian sculpture.^[56]

Gallery

• Jain chaumukha sculpture, 1st century CE

• 'A Jain Family Group' sculpture, Los Angeles County Museum of Art, 6th century

• Shiva panel, Kailash Temple (Cave 16), Ellora.

• Marble figure, Jaisalmer Jain Temple, Rajasthan, 12th Century

• 13th century Ganesha statue

• Stone Inscription at ASI Museum, Amaravathi

• Secular scenes

• Statue of Suparshvanatha from c. 900 C.E.

• Seated Ganesha, sandstone sculpture from Rajasthan, 9th century

• Kailasha Temple at Ellora Cave

• Marble Sculpture of female yakshi in typical curving pose, c. 1450, Rajasthan

• Shrine with Four Jinas-Rishabhanatha, Parshvanatha, Neminatha, and Mahavira, 6th century

• Jain tirthankara, Kushan Empire, 1st-2nd century

• The iconic 57 ft high monolithic Statue of Gommateshwara, Shravanabelagola, 10th Century

See also

Part of a series on the
Culture of India
Society
Indians Folklore History Immigration Languages Holidays Religion
Topics
Art Architecture Cinema Cuisine Dance Festivals Literature Poetry Media Newspapers Radio Television Music Monuments Painting Sports Theatre Video gaming
Symbols
Flag Coat of arms Anthem Miss India World Heritage Sites
India portal  Bollywood portal
v t e

Sculptures of Bangladesh

List of rock-cut temples in India

Notes

1. Blurton, 22
2. Harle, 17–20
3. Harle, 22–24
4. Harle, 26–38
5. Harle, 87; his Part 2 covers the period
6. Harle, 124
7. Harle, 301-310, 325-327
8. "Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 2019-02-20.
9. Harle, 276–284
10. "South Asian arts - Visual arts of India and Sri Lanka (Ceylon)". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2019-02-20.
11. Paul, Pran Gopal; Paul, Debjani (1989). "Brahmanical Imagery in the Kuṣāṇa Art of Mathurā: Tradition and Innovations". East and West. 39 (1/4): 111–143, especially 112–114, 115, 125. JSTOR 29756891.
12. Paul, Pran Gopal; Paul, Debjani (1989). "Brahmanical Imagery in the Kuṣāṇa Art of Mathurā: Tradition and Innovations". East and West. 39 (1/4): 111–143. ISSN 0012-8376. JSTOR 29756891.
13. Shaw, Ian; Jameson, Robert (2008). A Dictionary of Archaeology. John Wiley & Sons. p. 248. ISBN 978-0-470-75196-1.
14. Gupta, C. C. Das (1951). "Unpublished Ancient Indian Terracottas Preserved in the Musée Guimet, Paris". Artibus Asiae. 14 (4): 283–305. doi:10.2307/3248779. ISSN 0004-3648. JSTOR 3248779.
15. Mahajan V.D. (1960, reprint 2007). Ancient India, New Delhi: S.Chand, New Delhi, ISBN 81-219-0887-6, p.348
16. Thapar, Romila (2001). Aśoka and the Decline of the Mauryas, New Delhi: Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-564445-X, pp.267-70
17. Dated 100 BCE in Fig.88 in Quintanilla, Sonya Rhie (2007). History of Early Stone Sculpture at Mathura: Ca. 150 BCE - 100 CE. BRILL. p. 368, Fig. 88. ISBN 9789004155374.
18. Harle, 28, 32-38
19. Harle, 271
20. Doniger, Wendy (2009). The Hindus: An Alternative History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 22,23. ISBN 9780199593347.
21. Harle, 271-272, 272 quoted
22. Harle, 342-350; Blurton, 225
23. "Seated Buddha with Two Attendants". www.kimbellart.org. Kimbell Art Museum.
24. "The Buddhist Triad, from Haryana or Mathura, Year 4 of Kaniska (ad 82). Kimbell Art Museum, Fort Worth." in Museum (Singapore), Asian Civilisations; Krishnan, Gauri Parimoo (2007). The Divine Within: Art & Living Culture of India & South Asia. World Scientific Pub. p. 113. ISBN 9789810567057.
25. Close-up image of the inscription of the Kimbell Buddha in Fussman, Gérard (1988). Documents épigraphiques kouchans (V). Buddha et Bodhisattva dans l'art de Mathura : deux Bodhisattvas inscrits de l'an 4 et l'an 8. p. 27, planche 2.
26. Boardman, 370–378; Harle, 71–84
27. Dehejia, Vidya. "Buddhism and Buddhist Art". Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 2019-02-20.
28. Boardman, 370–378; Sickman, 85–90; Paine, 29–30
29. Rowland's chapter 15 is called "The Golden Age: The Gupta Period; Harle, 88
30. Harle, 118
31. Harle, 89
32. Rowland, 215
33. Harle, 199
34. Mookerji, 1, 143
35. Harle, 89; Rowland, 216; Mookerji, 143
36. Harle, 87–88
37. Rowland, 234
38. Harle, 87–88, 88 quoted
39. Rowland, 235
40. Rowland, 232
41. Rowland, 233
42. Rowland, 230–233, 232 and 233 quoted
43. Harle, 212-216; Craven, 170, 172-176; Huntington, generally, and p. 29 on freer attendants.
44. Huntington, 31 note 27 (the situation is little different for Gupta monarchs).
45. Huntington, 37, and Chapter 3 generally
46. Harle, 212; Craven, 176
47. "Khajuraho Group of Monuments". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Archived from the original on 2019-02-14. Retrieved 2019-02-20.
48. Harle, 272
49. Michell, 434-437
50. Harle, 277-278
51. Harle, 276-277
52. "Great Living Chola Temples". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Archived from the original on 2018-12-26. Retrieved 2019-02-21.
53. Smith, David (David James), born 1944 (2002). The Dance of Siva: religion, art and poetry in South India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–2. ISBN 978-0521528658. OCLC 53987899.
54. "Shiva as Lord of Dance (Nataraja)". Metropolitan Museum of Art. Retrieved 2019-02-20.
55. Rowland, 317
56. "Modern Sculptures". National Gallery of Modern Art, New Delhi. Retrieved 2019-02-14.

References

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sculptures in India.

• Blurton, T. Richard, Hindu Art, 1994, British Museum Press, ISBN 0 7141 1442 1
• Boardman, John, ed., The Oxford History of Classical Art, 1993, OUP, ISBN 0198143869
• Craven, Roy C., Indian Art: A Concise History, 1987, Thames & Hudson (Praeger in USA), ISBN 0500201463
• Harle, J. C., The Art and Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent, 2nd edn. 1994, Yale University Press. (Pelican History of Art), ISBN 0300062176
• Huntington, Susan L. (1984). The "Påala-Sena" Schools of Sculpture. Brill Archive. ISBN 90-04-06856-2.
• Michell, George, The Penguin Guide to the Monuments of India, Volume 1: Buddhist, Jain, Hindu, 1990, Penguin Books, ISBN 0140081445
• Mookerji, Radhakumud (1997), The Gupta Empire, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., ISBN 9788120804401, google books
• Paine, Robert Treat, in: Paine, R. T. & Soper A, The Art and Architecture of Japan, 3rd ed 1981, Yale University Press. (Pelican History of Art), ISBN 0140561080
• Rowland, Benjamin, The Art and Architecture of India: Buddhist, Hindu, Jain, 1967 (3rd edn.), Pelican History of Art, Penguin, ISBN 0140561021
• Sickman, Laurence, in: Sickman L & Soper A, The Art and Architecture of China, (Pelican History of Art), 3rd ed 1971, Penguin (now Yale History of Art), LOC 70-125675

Further reading

• Lerner, Martin (1984). The flame and the lotus: Indian and Southeast Asian art from the Kronos collections. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 978-0870993749. Retrieved 2016-03-06.
• Welch, Stuart Cary (1985). India: art and culture, 1300-1900. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. ISBN 9780944142134.