Mahāyāna ( / ˌ m ɑː h ə j ɑː n ə / ; "Gran Vehículo") es un término para un grupo amplio de tradiciones budistas , textos , filosofías y prácticas. El budismo Mahāyāna se desarrolló en la India (c. Siglo I a. C. en adelante) y se considera una de las dos principales ramas existentes del budismo (la otra es Theravada ); Las tradiciones Vajrayāna son un subconjunto de Mahāyāna que hace uso de numerosos métodos tántricos que consideran más rápidos y poderosos para lograrBudeidad . [1] El budismo Mahāyāna acepta las principales escrituras y enseñanzas del budismo temprano , pero también agrega varias doctrinas y textos nuevos como los Mahāyāna Sūtras . [2]
"Mahāyāna" también se refiere al camino del bodhisattva que se esfuerza por convertirse en un Buda plenamente despierto ( samyaksaṃbuddha ) para beneficio de todos los seres sintientes, por lo que también se le llama el "Vehículo del Bodhisattva" ( Bodhisattvayāna ). [3] [nota 1] El budismo Mahāyāna generalmente considera que el objetivo de convertirse en un Buda a través del camino del bodhisattva está disponible para todos y considera que el estado del arhat es incompleto. [4] Mahāyāna también incluye numerosos Budas y Bodhisattvas que no se encuentran en Theravada (como Amitābha ). [5] La filosofía budista Mahāyāna también promueve teorías únicas, como la teoría Madhyamaka de la vacuidad ( śūnyatā ), la doctrina Vijñānavāda y la enseñanza de la naturaleza búdica .
Aunque inicialmente fue un pequeño movimiento en la India, Mahāyāna eventualmente se convirtió en una fuerza influyente en el budismo indio . [6] Los grandes centros escolares asociados con Mahāyāna, como Nalanda y Vikramashila, prosperaron entre los siglos VII y XII. [6] A lo largo de su historia, el budismo Mahāyāna se extendió por el sur de Asia , Asia central , Asia oriental y el sudeste asiático . Sigue siendo influyente hoy en China , Taiwán , Mongolia , Corea , Japón , Vietnam , Nepal , Malasia y Bután . [7]
La tradición Mahāyāna es la mayor tradición budista existente en la actualidad (el 53% de los budistas pertenecen al Mahāyāna de Asia oriental y el 6% a Vajrayāna), en comparación con el 36% de Theravada (encuesta de 2010). [8]
Etimología
Sánscrito original
Según Jan Nattier , el término Mahāyāna ("Gran Vehículo") fue originalmente un sinónimo honorario de Bodhisattvayāna (" Vehículo Bodhisattva "), [9] el vehículo de un bodhisattva que busca la Budeidad para el beneficio de todos los seres sintientes. [3] Por lo tanto, el término Mahāyāna (que antes se había utilizado simplemente como un epíteto del budismo en sí) fue adoptado en una fecha temprana como sinónimo del camino y las enseñanzas de los bodhisattvas. Dado que era simplemente un término honorífico para Bodhisattvayāna , la adopción del término Mahāyāna y su aplicación al Bodhisattvayāna no representó un punto de inflexión significativo en el desarrollo de una tradición Mahāyāna. [9]
Los primeros textos Mahāyāna, como el Sutra del loto , a menudo utilizan el término Mahāyāna como sinónimo de Bodhisattvayāna , pero el término Hīnayāna es comparativamente raro en las fuentes más antiguas. La presunta dicotomía entre Mahāyāna e Hīnayāna puede ser engañosa, ya que los dos términos no se formaron realmente en relación entre sí en la misma era. [10]
Entre las referencias más tempranas y más importantes a Mahāyāna se encuentran las que ocurren en Lotus Sūtra (Skt. Saddharma Puṇḍarīka Sūtra ) que data del siglo I a. C. y el siglo I d. C. [11] Seishi Karashima ha sugerido que el término utilizado por primera vez en una versión anterior de Gandhāri Prakrit del Lotus Sūtra no era el término mahāyāna sino la palabra prakrit mahājāna en el sentido de mahājñāna (gran conocimiento). [12] [13] En una etapa posterior, cuando la primera palabra prakrit se convirtió al sánscrito, este mahājāna , que era fonéticamente ambivalente, se convirtió por error en mahāyāna , posiblemente debido a lo que pudo haber sido un doble significado en la famosa Parábola de la Quema. House , que habla de tres vehículos o carros (Skt: yāna ). [nota 2] [12] [14]
traducción china
En chino , Mahayana se llama 大乘 (dasheng), que es un calco de maha (Gran 大) yana (Vehículo 乘). También hay una transliteración 摩诃衍 那. [15] [16]
El término apareció en algunos de los primeros textos mahayana, incluida la traducción del Sutra del loto del emperador Ling de Han . [17] También ha aparecido en Āgama . Los términos 大乘 o incluso 小乘 no aparecen en el Canon Pali de la escuela Theravada . [18] [19]
Algunos estudiosos piensan que la definición es diferente de las explicaciones comunes de generaciones posteriores. [20] Cuando las escrituras budistas se tradujeron al chino, el budismo Mahayana ya coexistía con otras escuelas en la India. Mahayana comenzó a hacerse popular con el auge del budismo chino . [21] Según las comparaciones con los sutras Pali, algunos eruditos como Yin Shun sostienen que la palabra 大乘 se agregó durante la traducción al chino . [22]
Historia
Teorías de origen
Los orígenes de Mahāyāna aún no se comprenden completamente y existen numerosas teorías en competencia. [24] Las primeras visiones occidentales de Mahāyāna asumían que existía como una escuela separada en competencia con las llamadas escuelas " Hīnayāna ". Según David Drewes, durante la mayor parte del siglo XX, las principales teorías sobre los orígenes de Mahāyāna fueron que se trataba de un movimiento laico (primero argumentado por Jean Przyluski y apoyado por Etienne Lamotte y Akira Hirakawa) o que se desarrolló entre los Mahāsāṃghika Nikaya. [25] Estas teorías han sido en su mayoría revocadas recientemente o se ha demostrado que son problemáticas. [25]
La evidencia textual más antigua de "Mahāyāna" proviene de los sūtras que se originaron alrededor del comienzo de la era común. Jan Nattier ha notado que algunos de los primeros textos Mahāyāna, como el Ugraparipṛccha Sūtra usan el término "Mahāyāna", sin embargo, no hay diferencia doctrinal entre Mahāyāna en este contexto y las primeras escuelas , y que "Mahāyāna" se refería más bien al riguroso emulación de Gautama Buddha en el camino de un bodhisattva que busca convertirse en un Buddha completamente iluminado. [17] Nattier escribe que en Ugra, Mahāyāna no es una escuela, sino una "vocación espiritual rigurosa y exigente, que debe perseguirse dentro de la comunidad budista existente". [26]
Varios eruditos como Hendrik Kern y AK Warder sugirieron que Mahāyāna y sus sutras (como las primeras versiones del género Prajñāpāramitā ) se desarrollaron entre los Mahāsāṃghika Nikaya (desde el siglo I a. C. en adelante), algunos apuntando al área a lo largo del río Kṛṣṇa. en la región de Āndhra del sur de la India como origen geográfico. [27] [28] [25] [29] [30] Paul Williams piensa que "no puede haber duda de que al menos algunos sutras Mahāyāna tempranos se originaron en círculos Mahāsāṃghika ", apuntando a la doctrina Mahāsāṃghika de la naturaleza supramundana ( lokottara ) del Buda, que está muy cerca de la visión Mahāyāna del Buda. [31]
Anthony Barber y Sree Padma señalan que "los historiadores del pensamiento budista han sabido durante bastante tiempo que pensadores budistas Mahayana tan importantes como Nāgārjuna , Dignaga , Candrakīrti , Āryadeva y Bhavaviveka , entre muchos otros, formularon sus teorías mientras vivían en comunidades budistas. en Āndhra ". [32] Sin embargo, más recientemente Seishi Karashima ha defendido su origen en la región de Gandhara . [33] Algunos eruditos como Warder piensan que después de un período de composición en el sur, más tarde la actividad de escribir escrituras adicionales se trasladó al norte. [nota 3] Joseph Walser también señala que algunos otros sutras "delatan un origen noroccidental" y mencionan productos del comercio con China (u obtenidos fuera de la India, como la seda o el coral). [34]
Pruebas importantes de los primeros Mahāyāna incluyen los textos traducidos por el monje Lokakṣema en el siglo II d.C., que llegó a China desde el reino de Gandhāra . Estos son algunos de los textos Mahāyāna más antiguos que se conocen. [35] [36] [nota 4] El estudio de estos textos de Paul Harrison y otros muestran que promueven fuertemente el monaquismo (contra la teoría del origen laico), reconocen la legitimidad del arhat , no recomiendan la devoción hacia los bodhisattvas 'celestiales' y hacen no mostrar ningún intento de establecer una nueva secta u orden. [25] Algunos de estos textos a menudo enfatizan las prácticas ascéticas , la morada en el bosque y los estados profundos de concentración meditativa ( samadhi ). [37] Algunos eruditos especulan además que los prajñāpāramitā sūtras fueron escritos en respuesta a ciertas teorías de las escuelas abhidharma . [38]
La evidencia de los sutras que describen una estrecha conexión de Mahāyāna con el monaquismo finalmente reveló los problemas con la teoría de los orígenes laicos. [25] La teoría de los orígenes Mahāsāṃghika también ha demostrado lentamente ser problemática por estudios que revelaron cómo ciertos sutras Mahāyāna muestran rastros de haberse desarrollado entre otras nikāyas u órdenes monásticas (como el Dharmaguptaka ). [39] Debido a tal evidencia, académicos como Paul Harrison y Paul Williams argumentan que el movimiento no fue sectario y posiblemente panbudista. [25] [40] No hay evidencia de que Mahāyāna alguna vez se refiriera a una escuela o secta formal separada del budismo, sino que existió como un cierto conjunto de ideales, y doctrinas posteriores, para aspirantes a bodhisattvas. [17] Paul Williams también ha señalado que Mahāyāna nunca había intentado tener un linaje de ordenación o Vinaya separado de las primeras escuelas del budismo , y por lo tanto, cada bhikṣu o bhikṣuṇī que se adhiriera al Mahāyāna perteneció formalmente a una de las primeras escuelas. La pertenencia a estas nikāyas , o sectas monásticas, continúa hoy en día con el Dharmaguptaka nikāya en el este de Asia, y el Mūlasarvāstivāda nikāya en el budismo tibetano . Por lo tanto, Mahāyāna nunca fue una secta rival separada de las primeras escuelas. [41] Paul Harrison aclara que si bien los mahayānistas monásticos pertenecían a un nikāya, no todos los miembros de un nikāya eran mahāyānistas. [42] Por los monjes chinos que visitaban la India, ahora sabemos que tanto los monjes Mahāyāna como los no Mahāyāna en la India a menudo vivían en los mismos monasterios uno al lado del otro. [43] También es posible que, formalmente, Mahāyāna se hubiera entendido como un grupo de monjes o monjas dentro de un monasterio más grande que tomaban un voto juntos (conocido como " kriyākarma ") para memorizar y estudiar un texto o textos Mahāyāna. [44]
Mientras tanto, Gregory Schopen ha argumentado que una serie de movimientos vagamente conectados se desarrollaron durante el siglo II inspirados en santuarios de culto donde se guardaban los sutras Mahāyāna, y la teoría del "culto al libro" también es popular entre otros eruditos actuales. [25]
Después de examinar la evidencia epigráfica, Schopen también argumenta que Mahāyāna siguió siendo "un movimiento minoritario extremadamente limitado, si es que se mantuvo, que no atrajo absolutamente ningún apoyo público o popular documentado durante al menos dos siglos más". [25] Schopen también considera que este movimiento está en tensión con otros budistas, "luchando por el reconocimiento y la aceptación". [45] Su "mentalidad en conflicto" puede haber llevado a ciertos elementos que se encuentran en los textos Mahāyāna como el Sutra del loto . [45]
Asimismo, Joseph Walser habla de la "virtual invisibilidad de Mahāyāna en el registro arqueológico hasta el siglo quinto". [46] Schopen, Harrison y Nattier también argumentan que estas comunidades probablemente no eran un solo movimiento unificado, sino grupos dispersos basados en diferentes prácticas y sutras. [25] Una razón para este punto de vista es que las fuentes de Mahāyāna son extremadamente diversas y defienden muchas doctrinas y posiciones diferentes, a menudo conflictivas, como escribe Jan Nattier: [47]
Así, encontramos una escritura (la Aksobhyavyuha ) que aboga tanto por las prácticas de srávaka como de bodhisattva , propone la posibilidad de renacer en una tierra pura y recomienda con entusiasmo el culto del libro, pero parece no saber nada de la teoría de la vacuidad, los diez bhumis o el trikaya , mientras que otro (el P'u-sa pen-yeh ching ) propone los diez bhumis y se centra exclusivamente en el camino del bodhisattva, pero nunca discute las paramitas . Un madhyamika tratado ( de Nagarjuna Mulamadhyamika-karikas ) puede desplegar con entusiasmo la retórica de vacío , sin mencionar nunca el camino del bodhisattva, mientras que un yogacara tratado ( de Vasubandu Madhyanta-vibhaga-bhasya ) puede ahondar en los detalles de la doctrina trikaya al tiempo que evitamos la doctrina de ekayana . En otras palabras, debemos estar preparados para encontrar una multiplicidad de Mahayanas floreciendo incluso en la India, por no mencionar las que se desarrollaron en el este de Asia y el Tíbet.
Una de las principales teorías actuales es lo que Paul Harrison llama "la hipótesis del bosque" y define como:
'el Mahāyāna ... fue el trabajo de ascetas incondicionales , miembros del ala de los bosques ( aranyavasin ) de la Orden Budista' [48]
Algunos eruditos señalan cómo algunos de los primeros textos Mahāyāna a menudo describen una estricta adhesión al camino de un bodhisattva y un compromiso con el ideal ascético de una vida monástica en el desierto, similar a las ideas expresadas en el Rhinoceros Sūtra . [nota 5] Reginald Ray también ha defendido este punto de vista en su Buddhist Saints in India (1994). Del mismo modo, el estudio de Jan Nattier sobre el Ugraparipṛccha Sūtra , A few good men (2003) sostiene que este sutra representa la forma más antigua de Mahāyāna, que presenta el camino del bodhisattva como una 'empresa sumamente difícil' del ascetismo monástico del bosque de élite. [25] El estudio de Boucher sobre el Rāṣṭrapālaparipṛcchā-sūtra (2008) es otro trabajo reciente sobre este tema. [49]
David Drewes se opone tanto a la hipótesis del culto a los libros como a la hipótesis del bosque. Señala que no hay evidencia real de la existencia de santuarios de libros, que la práctica de la veneración del sutra era pan-budista y no distintivamente Mahāyāna, y que "los sutras Mahāyāna abogan por prácticas mnémicas / orales / auditivas con más frecuencia que las escritas. " [25] Con respecto a la hipótesis del bosque, señala que solo dos de los 12 o más textos del corpus de Lokakṣema abogan directamente por la vivienda en el bosque, mientras que los otros no lo mencionan o lo ven como inútil, promoviendo prácticas más fáciles como "simplemente escuchar el sutra, o pensar en Budas particulares, que ellos afirman puede permitirle a uno renacer en ' tierras puras ' especiales y lujosas donde uno podrá hacer un progreso fácil y rápido en el camino del bodhisattva y alcanzar la Budeidad después de tan poco como una vida ". [25] Drewes afirma que la evidencia simplemente muestra que "Mahāyāna fue principalmente un movimiento textual, centrado en la revelación, predicación y diseminación de los sutras Mahāyāna , que se desarrolló dentro de las estructuras sociales e institucionales budistas tradicionales y nunca se apartó de ellas". [50] Drewes señala la importancia de los dharmabhanakas (predicadores, recitadores de estos sutras) en los primeros sutras Mahāyāna. Esta figura es ampliamente alabada como alguien que debe ser respetado, obedecido ('como un esclavo sirve a su señor') y donado, por lo que es posible que estas personas fueran los principales agentes del movimiento Mahāyāna. [50]
Primeras inscripciones
La inscripción de piedra más antigua que contiene una formulación Mahāyāna reconocible y una mención del Buda Amitābha se encontró en el subcontinente indio en Mathura , y data de alrededor del año 180 d.C. Los restos de una estatua de un Buda llevan la inscripción de Brahmī : "Realizada en el año 28 del reinado del rey Huviṣka , ... para el Bendito, el Buda Amitābha". [52] También hay alguna evidencia de que el propio emperador Huviṣka era un seguidor del budismo Mahāyāna, y un fragmento de un manuscrito en sánscrito de la Colección Schøyen describe a Huviṣka como "establecido en el Mahāyāna". [53] La evidencia del nombre "Mahāyāna" en las inscripciones indias en el período anterior al siglo V es muy limitada en comparación con la multiplicidad de escritos Mahāyāna transmitidos desde Asia Central a China en ese momento. [nota 6] [nota 7] [nota 8]
Crecimiento
El movimiento (o movimientos) Mahāyāna permaneció bastante pequeño hasta que se estableció en el siglo V, y se habían encontrado muy pocos manuscritos antes de esa fecha (las excepciones son de Bamiyan ). Según Walser, "los siglos V y VI parecen haber sido un hito para la producción de manuscritos Mahāyāna". [54] Asimismo, es sólo en los siglos IV y V d.C. que la evidencia epigráfica muestra algún tipo de apoyo popular a Mahāyāna, incluido algún posible apoyo real en el reino de Shan shan , así como en Bamiyan y Mathura . [55] Aún así, incluso después del siglo V, la evidencia epigráfica que usa el término Mahāyāna es todavía bastante pequeña y es principalmente monástica, no laica. [55] En ese momento, los peregrinos chinos, como Faxian , Yijing y Xuanzang viajaban a la India, y sus escritos describen monasterios que etiquetan como 'Mahāyāna', así como monasterios donde tanto los monjes Mahāyāna como los no Mahāyāna vivían juntos. . [56]
Después del siglo V, el budismo Mahāyāna y sus instituciones crecieron lentamente en influencia. Algunas de las instituciones más influyentes se convirtieron en complejos universitarios monásticos masivos como Nalanda (establecida por el emperador Gupta del siglo V EC , Kumaragupta I ) y Vikramashila (establecida bajo Dharmapala c. 783 a 820) que eran centros de varias ramas de la erudición, incluyendo Filosofía Mahāyāna. El complejo de Nalanda finalmente se convirtió en el centro budista más grande e influyente de la India durante siglos. [57] Aun así, como señaló Paul Williams, "parece que menos del 50 por ciento de los monjes encontrados por Xuanzang (Hsüan-tsang; c. 600–664) en su visita a la India eran en realidad mahāyānistas". [58]
El Mahāyāna indio desarrolló varias escuelas de pensamiento, algunas agrupaciones incluyen: Mādhyamaka , Yogācāra , la naturaleza búdica ( Tathāgatagarbha ) y la lógica budista como la última y más reciente. [59] Con el tiempo, los textos y la filosofía del Mahāyāna de la India llegaron a Asia Central y China a través de rutas comerciales, y luego se extendieron por todo el Este de Asia . En algunos casos, las tradiciones filosóficas indias se trasplantaron directamente, como en el caso de las escuelas Madhymaka de Asia oriental y Yogacara de Asia oriental . Más tarde, los nuevos desarrollos en el Mahāyāna chino llevaron a nuevas escuelas chinas como Tiantai , Huayen y el Budismo Chan (Zen).
Las formas de Mahāyāna basadas en las doctrinas de los sutras de Prajñāpāramitā, los sutras de la naturaleza de Buda, el sutra del loto y las enseñanzas de la Tierra Pura siguen siendo populares en el budismo de Asia oriental , que está completamente dominado por ramas de Mahāyāna. Paul Williams ha señalado que en esta tradición en el Lejano Oriente, siempre se ha dado primacía al estudio de los sūtras Mahāyāna. [60]
Desarrollos posteriores
Bajo los imperios Gupta y Pala , comenzó a desarrollarse un nuevo movimiento que se basó en la doctrina Mahāyāna anterior, así como en nuevas ideas, y que llegó a ser conocido por varios nombres como Vajrayāna , Mantrayāna y Budismo tántrico. Posiblemente dirigido por grupos de yoguis tántricos errantes llamados mahasiddhas , este movimiento desarrolló nuevas prácticas espirituales tántricas y también promovió nuevos textos llamados Tantras budistas . [61] Esta nueva forma de budismo finalmente también se extendió hacia el norte hasta el Tíbet y hacia el este hasta China.
Varias clases de literatura Vajrayana se desarrollaron como resultado de que las cortes reales patrocinaran tanto al Budismo como al Saivismo . [62] El Mañjusrimulakalpa , que más tarde llegó a clasificarse en Kriyatantra , establece que los mantras enseñados en los tantras Shaiva, Garuda y Vaishnava serán efectivos si los aplican los budistas, ya que todos fueron enseñados originalmente por Manjushri . [63] El Guhyasiddhi de Padmavajra, un trabajo asociado con la tradición Guhyasamaja , prescribe actuar como un guru Shaiva e iniciar a los miembros en las escrituras y mandalas Saiva Siddhanta . [64] Los textos de Samvara tantra adoptaron la lista pitha del texto Shaiva Tantrasadbhava , introduciendo un error de copia en el que una deidad se confundía con un lugar. [sesenta y cinco]
Doctrina
Pocas cosas se pueden decir con certeza sobre el budismo Mahāyāna, [nota 9] especialmente su forma india temprana, aparte de que el budismo practicado en China , Indonesia , Vietnam , Corea , Tíbet y Japón es el budismo Mahāyāna. [nota 10] Mahāyāna puede describirse como una colección vagamente encuadernada de muchas enseñanzas con doctrinas grandes y expansivas que pueden existir simultáneamente. [nota 11]
Mahāyāna constituye un conjunto inclusivo de tradiciones caracterizadas por la pluralidad y la adopción de nuevos sutras Mahāyāna además de los āgamas anteriores . Mahāyāna se ve a sí mismo penetrando cada vez más profundamente en el Dharma del Buda . Un comentario indio sobre el Mahāyānasaṃgraha , titulado Vivṛtaguhyārthapiṇḍavyākhyā , ofrece una clasificación de las enseñanzas de acuerdo con las capacidades de la audiencia: [66]
[A] e acuerdo con las calificaciones de los discípulos, el Dharma se [clasifica como] inferior y superior. Por ejemplo, a los comerciantes se les enseñó lo inferior a Trapuṣa y Ballika porque eran hombres corrientes; el medio se le enseñó al grupo de cinco porque estaban en la etapa de los santos; los ocho Prajñāpāramitās se les enseñaron a los bodhisattvas, y [los Prajñāpāramitās ] son superiores en la eliminación de formas imaginadas conceptualmente.
También hay una tendencia en los sūtras Mahāyāna a considerar que la adhesión a estos sūtras genera beneficios espirituales mayores que los que surgen de ser un seguidor de enfoques del Dharma que no son Mahāyāna. Así, el Śrīmālādevī Siṃhanāda Sūtra afirma que el Buda dijo que la devoción a Mahāyāna es inherentemente superior en sus virtudes a seguir los senderos śrāvaka o pratyekabuddha . [67]
Budas y bodhisattvas
Los budas y los bodhisattvas son elementos centrales de Mahāyāna. Mahāyāna tiene una cosmología enormemente expandida , con varios Budas y Bodhisattvas que residen en diferentes mundos y campos de Buda ( buddha ksetra ). Una característica importante de Mahāyāna es la forma en que comprende la naturaleza de un Buda, que difiere de la comprensión que no es Mahāyāna. Los textos Mahāyāna no solo representan a menudo a numerosos Budas además de Sakyamuni , sino que los ven como seres trascendentales o supramundanos ( lokuttara ). [31] Según Paul Williams, para el Mahāyāna, un Buda a menudo se ve como "un rey espiritual, que se relaciona y se preocupa por el mundo", en lugar de simplemente un maestro que después de su muerte "ha 'ido completamente más allá' del mundo. y sus cuidados ". [68] La vida y muerte de Buda Sakyamuni en la tierra generalmente se entiende como una "mera apariencia", su muerte es un espectáculo, mientras que en realidad permanece por compasión para ayudar a todos los seres sintientes. [68]
El Dr. Guang Xing describe al Buda Mahāyāna como "una divinidad omnipotente dotada de numerosos atributos y cualidades sobrenaturales ... [Él] es descrito casi como una divinidad omnipotente y todopoderosa". [69] El concepto de los tres cuerpos ( trikāya ) del Buda se desarrolló para dar sentido a estas ideas, y los budas nirmanakaya (como Sakyamuni) se consideran una emanación del Dharmakaya . Mediante el uso de diversas prácticas, un devoto de Mahāyāna puede aspirar a renacer en la tierra pura o en el campo de Buda de un Buda, donde puede esforzarse por alcanzar la budeidad en las mejores condiciones posibles. Dependiendo de la secta, la liberación en un campo de Buda puede obtenerse mediante la fe , la meditación o, a veces, incluso mediante la repetición del nombre de Buda . Las prácticas devocionales basadas en la fe centradas en el renacimiento en tierras puras son comunes en el budismo de tierras puras de Asia oriental . [70]
Mahāyāna generally holds that pursuing only the personal release from suffering i.e. nirvāṇa is a narrow or inferior aspiration, because it lacks the resolve to liberate all other sentient beings from saṃsāra (the round of rebirth) by becoming a Buddha. One who engages in this path to complete buddhahood is called a bodhisattva. High level bodhisattvas are also seen as extremely powerful supramundane beings. Popular bodhisattvas include Avalokiteshvara, Manjushri and Maitreya. Bodhisattvas could reach the personal nirvana of the arhats, but they believe it is more important to remain in saṃsāra and help others.[71][72] There are two models for this which are seen in the various Mahāyāna texts, one is the idea that a bodhisattva must postpone their awakening until Buddhahood is attained. This could take aeons and in the meantime they will be helping countless beings. After reaching Buddhahood, they do pass on to cessation (nirvāṇa) just like an arhat. The second model is the idea that there are two kinds of nirvāṇa, the nirvāṇa of an arhat and a superior type of nirvāṇa called apratiṣṭhita (non-abiding) that allows a Buddha to remain forever engaged in the world. As noted by Paul Williams, the idea of apratiṣṭhita nirvāṇa may have taken some time to develop and is not obvious in some of the early Mahāyāna literature.[72]
The Bodhisattva path
The Mahāyāna bodhisattva path (mārga) or vehicle (yāna) is seen as being the superior spiritual path by Mahāyānists, over and above the paths of those who seek arhatship or "solitary buddhahood" for their own sake (Śrāvakayāna and Pratyekabuddhayāna). According to eighth century Mahāyāna philosopher Haribhadra, the term "bodhisattva" can refer to those who follow any of the three vehicles, since all are working towards bodhi (awakening) and hence the technical term for a Mahāyāna bodhisattva is a mahāsattva (great being) bodhisattva.[73] According to Paul Williams, a Mahāyāna bodhisattva is best defined as:
that being who has taken the vow to be reborn, no matter how many times this may be necessary, in order to attain the highest possible goal, that of Complete and Perfect Buddhahood. This is for the benefit of all sentient beings.[73]
Taking the bodhisattva vow to "lead to Nirvana the whole immeasurable world of beings" as the prajñaparamita sutras state, is the central characteristic of the bodhisattva.[74] According to the Bodhipathapradīpa (A Lamp for the Path to Awakening) by the Indian master Atiśa, the central defining feature of a bodhisattva's path is the universal aspiration to end suffering for themselves and all other beings. The spiritual motivation is termed bodhicitta ("the mind of awakening").[75]
Another key virtue of a bodhisattva is their "great compassion" (maha-karuṇā) which leads one to work tirelessly for the ultimate good of all beings. This universal compassion is foundational for a bodhisattva and leads to bodhicitta. According to the Indian philosopher Shantideva, when great compassion and bodhicitta arises in a person's heart, they cease to be an ordinary person and become a "son or daughter of the Buddhas".[75] Another foundational bodhisattva virtue is prajñā (transcendent knowledge or wisdom) which is an understanding of the emptiness of things arising from study, deep consideration and meditation.[74]
Numerous sutras hold that a key part of the bodhisattva path is the practice of a set of virtues called pāramitās (transcendent or supreme virtues). Sometimes six are outlined:[76]
- dāna-pāramitā: the perfection of giving
- śīla-pāramitā: the perfection of moral conduct or discipline
- kṣānti-pāramitā: the perfection of patient endurance
- vīrya-pāramitā: the perfection of vigor or diligence
- dhyāna-pāramitā: the perfection of meditation
- prajñā-pāramitā: the perfection of transcendent wisdom.
Other sutras such as the Daśabhūmika Sūtra give a list of ten, with the addition of upāya (skillful means), praṇidhāna (vow, resolution), Bala (spiritual power) and Jñāna (knowledge).[77]
Various texts associate the beginning of the bodhisattva practice with what is called the path of accumulation or equipment (saṃbhāra-mārga), which is the first path of the five paths schema which possibly developed from Sarvastivada sources.[78] The Daśabhūmika Sūtra as well as other texts also outline a series bodhisattva levels or spiritual stages (bhūmis ) on the path. The various texts disagree on the number of stages however, the Daśabhūmika giving ten for example (and mapping each one to the ten paramitas), the Bodhisattvabhūmi giving seven and thirteen and the Avatamsaka outlining 40 stages.[77] In later Mahāyāna scholasticism, such as in the work of Kamalashila and Atiśa, the five paths and ten bhūmi systems are merged and this is the progressive path model that is used in Tibetan Buddhism. According Paul Williams, in these systems, the first bhūmi is reached once one attains "direct, nonconceptual and nondual insight into emptiness in meditative absorption", which is associated with the path of seeing (darśana-mārga).[78]
Expedient means
Expedient means[79] (Skt. upāya) is another important skill of the Mahāyāna bodhisattva. The idea is most famously expounded in the Lotus Sutra, one of the earliest-dated sutras, and is accepted in all Mahāyāna schools of thought. It is any effective method or technique that aids awakening. It does not necessarily mean that some particular method is "untrue" but is simply any means or stratagem that is conducive to spiritual growth and leads beings to awakening and nirvana. Expedient means could thus be certain motivational words for a particular listener or even the Noble Eightfold Path itself. Basic Buddhism (what Mahāyāna would term śrāvakayāna or pratyekabuddhayāna) is an expedient method for helping people begin the noble Buddhist path and advance quite far. But the path is not wholly traversed, according to some schools, until the practitioner has striven for and attained Buddhahood for the liberation of all other sentient beings from suffering.[80][citation needed]
Some scholars have stated that the exercise of expedient means, "the ability to adapt one's message to the audience, is also of enormous importance in the Pāli canon."[note 12] In fact the Pāli term upāya-kosalla does occur in the Pāli Canon, in the Sangiti Sutta of the Digha Nikāya.[81]
Major philosophical ideas
Śūnyavāda
A central doctrine discussed by numerous Mahāyāna texts is the theory of emptiness or voidness (śūnyatā). It is considered to be an essential doctrine of the prajñāpāramitā genre of sutras as well as the core teaching of the Madhyamaka philosophy. This theory amounts to the idea that all phenomena (dharmas) without exception have "no essential unchanging core", and therefore have "no fundamentally real existence."[83] Because of this, all things, even the Dharma, the Buddha and all beings, are like “illusions” (māyā) and “dreams” (svapna).[84] Obtaining a deep understanding of this is said to be the prajñāpāramitā, the perfection of wisdom.
The Mahāyāna philosophical school termed Madhyamaka (Middle theory or Centrism, also known as śūnyavāda, 'the emptiness theory'), which was founded by the second century figure of Nagarjuna focuses on refuting all theories which posit any kind of substance, inherent existence or intrinsic nature (svabhāva).[85] Nagarjuna attempts to show in his works that any theory of intrinsic nature is contradicted by the Buddha's theory of dependent origination, since anything that has an independent existence cannot be dependently originated. The śūnyavāda philosophers were adamant that their denial of svabhāva is not a kind of nihilism (against protestations to the contrary by their opponents). Using the two truths theory they claimed that while one can speak of things existing in a conventional, relative sense, they do not exist inherently in an ultimate sense. They also argued that emptiness itself is also "empty", it does not have an absolute inherent existence nor does it mean a transcendental absolute reality, but is merely a useful concept or abstraction. In fact, since everything is empty of true existence, all things are just conceptualizations (prajñapti-matra), including the theory of emptiness, and all concepts must ultimately be abandoned in order to truly understand the nature of things.[86]
Vijñānavāda ("the doctrine of consciousness", a.k.a. vijñapti-mātra, "perceptions only" and citta-mātra "mind only") is another important doctrine promoted by some Mahāyāna sutras and later became the central theory of a major philosophical movement which arose during the Gupta period called Yogācāra. The primary sutra associated with this school of thought is the Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra, which claims that śūnyavāda is not the final definitive teaching (nītārtha) of the Buddha. Instead, the ultimate truth (paramārtha-satya) is said to be the view that all things (dharmas) are only mind (citta), consciousness (vijñāna) or perceptions (vijñapti) and that seemingly "external" objects (or "internal" subjects) do not really exist apart from the dependently originated flow of mental experiences. When this flow of mentality is seen as being empty of the subject-object duality we impose upon it, one reaches the non-dual cognition of "Thusness" (tathatā), which is nirvana. This doctrine is developed through various theories, the most important being the eight consciousnesses and the three natures.[87] The Saṃdhinirmocana calls its doctrine the 'third turning of the dharma wheel'. The Pratyutpanna sutra also mentions this doctrine, stating: "whatever belongs to this triple world is nothing but thought [citta-mātra]. Why is that? It is because however I imagine things, that is how they appear".[87]
The most influential thinkers in this tradition were the Indian brothers Asanga and Vasubandhu, along with an obscure figure termed Maitreyanātha. Yogācāra philosophers developed their own interpretation of the doctrine of emptiness which also criticized Madhyamaka for falling into nihilism.[88]
Tathāgatagarbha
The doctrine of Tathāgata store or Tathāgata womb (Tathāgatagarbha), also known as Buddha-nature or Buddha Principle (Skt: Buddha-dhātu) is important in all modern Mahāyāna traditions, though interpreted in different ways. Broadly speaking Buddha-nature is concerned with ascertaining what allows sentient beings to become Buddhas.[89] The term may have first appeared in the Mahāyāna Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra,[90] where it refers to "a sacred nature that is the basis for [beings'] becoming buddhas",[91] and where it is also spoken of as the 'Self' (atman).[92] The doctrine of a "really existing permanent element" within all sentient beings is a source of much debate and disagreement among Mahāyāna Buddhist philosophers as well as modern academics.[93] Some scholars have seen this as an influence from Brahmanic Hinduism, while some of these sutras admit that the use of the term 'Self' is partly done in order to win over non-Buddhist ascetics.[94][95]
According to some scholars, the Buddha nature discussed in some Mahāyāna sūtras does not represent a substantial self (ātman); rather, it is a positive language and expression of emptiness (śūnyatā) and represents the potentiality to realize Buddhahood through Buddhist practices.[96] Other Mahāyāna philosophies like Madhyamaka were mainly dominated by a discourse of emptiness, which used primarily negative or apophatic language. The Buddha nature genre of sūtras can be seen as an attempt to state Buddhist teachings using positive language while also maintaining the middle way, to prevent people from being turned away from Buddhism by a false impression of nihilism.[97] A different view is propounded by Tathāgatagarbha specialist, Michael Zimmermann, who sees key Buddha-nature sutras such as the Nirvana Sutra and the Tathagatagarbha Sutra as teaching an affirmative vision of an eternal, indestructible Buddhic Self.[92]
The Uttaratantra (an exegetical treatise on Buddha nature) sees Buddha nature as eternal, uncaused, unconditioned, and incapable of being destroyed, although temporarily concealed within worldly beings by adventitious defilements.[98] According to C. D. Sebastian, the Uttaratantra's reference to a transcendental self (ātma-pāramitā) should be understood as "the unique essence of the universe",[99] thus the universal and immanent essence of Buddha nature is the same throughout time and space.[100]
Sagrada Escritura
Mahāyāna Buddhism takes the basic teachings of the Buddha as recorded in early scriptures as the starting point of its teachings, such as those concerning karma and rebirth, anātman, emptiness, dependent origination, and the Four Noble Truths. Mahāyāna Buddhists in East Asia have traditionally studied these teachings in the Āgamas preserved in the Chinese Buddhist canon. "Āgama" is the term used by those traditional Buddhist schools in India who employed Sanskrit for their basic canon. These correspond to the Nikāyas used by the Theravāda school. The surviving Āgamas in Chinese translation belong to at least two schools. Most of the Āgamas were never translated into the Tibetan canon, which according to Hirakawa, only contains a few translations of early sutras corresponding to the Nikāyas or Āgamas.[101] However, these basic doctrines are contained in Tibetan translations of later works such as the Abhidharmakośa and the Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra.
Mahāyāna sutras
In addition to accepting the essential scriptures of the early Buddhist schools as valid, Mahāyāna Buddhism maintains large collections of sūtras that are not recognized as authentic by the modern Theravāda school. The earliest of these sutras do not call themselves ‘Mahāyāna,’ but use the terms vaipulya (extensive) sutras, or gambhira (profound) sutras.[50] These were also not recognized by some individuals in the early Buddhist schools. In other cases, Buddhist communities such as the Mahāsāṃghika school were divided along these doctrinal lines.[102] In Mahāyāna Buddhism, the Mahāyāna sūtras are often given greater authority than the Āgamas. The first of these Mahāyāna-specific writings were written probably around the 1st century BCE or 1st century CE.[103][104] Some influential Mahāyāna sutras are the Prajñaparamita sutras such as the Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, the Lotus Sutra, the Pure Land sutras, the Vimalakirti Sutra, the Golden Light Sutra, the Avatamsaka Sutra, the Sandhinirmocana Sutra and the Tathāgatagarbha sūtras.
According to David Drewes, Mahāyāna sutras contain several elements besides the promotion of the bodhisattva ideal, including "expanded cosmologies and mythical histories, ideas of purelands and great, ‘celestial’ Buddhas and bodhisattvas, descriptions of powerful new religious practices, new ideas on the nature of the Buddha, and a range of new philosophical perspectives."[50] These texts present stories of revelation in which the Buddha teaches Mahāyāna sutras to certain bodhisattvas who vow to teach and spread these sutras after the Buddha's death.[50] Regarding religious praxis, David Drewes outlines the most commonly promoted practices in Mahāyāna sutras were seen as means to achieve Buddhahood quickly and easily and included "hearing the names of certain Buddhas or bodhisattvas, maintaining Buddhist precepts, and listening to, memorizing, and copying sutras, that they claim can enable rebirth in the pure lands Abhirati and Sukhavati, where it is said to be possible to easily acquire the merit and knowledge necessary to become a Buddha in as little as one lifetime."[50] Another widely recommended practice is anumodana, or rejoicing in the good deeds of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas.
The practice of meditation and visualization of Buddhas has been seen by some scholars as a possible explanation for the source of certain Mahāyāna sutras which are seen traditionally as direct visionary revelations from the Buddhas in their pure lands. Paul Harrison has also noted the importance of dream revelations in certain Mahāyāna sutras such as the Arya-svapna-nirdesa which lists and interprets 108 dream signs.[105]
As noted by Paul Williams, one feature of Mahāyāna sutras (especially earlier ones) is "the phenomenon of laudatory self reference – the lengthy praise of the sutra itself, the immense merits to be obtained from treating even a verse of it with reverence, and the nasty penalties which will accrue in accordance with karma to those who denigrate the scripture."[106] Some Mahāyāna sutras also warn against the accusation that they are not the word of the Buddha (buddhavacana), such as the Astasāhasrikā (8,000 verse) Prajñāpāramitā, which states that such claims come from Mara (the evil tempter).[107] Some of these Mahāyāna sutras also warn those who would denigrate Mahāyāna sutras or those who preach it (i.e. the dharmabhanaka) that this action can lead to rebirth in hell.[108]
Another feature of some Mahāyāna sutras, especially later ones, is increasing sectarianism and animosity towards non-Mahāyāna practitioners (sometimes called sravakas, "hearers") which are sometimes depicted as being part of the 'hīnayāna' (the 'inferior way') who refuse to accept the 'superior way' of the Mahāyāna.[109][110] As noted by Paul Williams, earlier Mahāyāna sutras like the Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra and the Ajitasena sutra do not present any antagonism towards the hearers or the ideal of arhatship like later sutras do.[110] Regarding the bodhisattva path, some Mahāyāna sutras promote it as a universal path for everyone, while others like the Ugraparipṛcchā see it as something for a small elite of hardcore ascetics.[110]
In the 4th century Mahāyāna abhidharma work Abhidharmasamuccaya, Asaṅga refers to the collection which contains the āgamas as the Śrāvakapiṭaka and associates it with the śrāvakas and pratyekabuddhas.[111] Asaṅga classifies the Mahāyāna sūtras as belonging to the Bodhisattvapiṭaka, which is designated as the collection of teachings for bodhisattvas.[111]
Other literature
Mahāyāna Buddhism also developed a massive commentarial and exegetical literature, many of which are called śāstra (treatises) or vrittis (commentaries). Philosophical texts were also written in verse form (karikās), such as in the case of the famous Mūlamadhyamika-karikā (Root Verses on the Middle Way) by Nagarjuna, the foundational text of Madhyamika philosophy. Numerous later Madhyamika philosophers like Candrakirti wrote commentaries on this work as well as their own verse works.
Mahāyāna Buddhist tradition also relies on numerous non-Mahayana commentaries (śāstra), a very influential one being the Abhidharmakosha of Vasubandhu, which is written from a non-Mahayana Sarvastivada–Sautrantika perspective.
Vasubandhu is also the author of various Mahāyāna Yogacara texts on the philosophical theory known as vijñapti-matra (conscious construction only). The Yogacara school philosopher Asanga is also credited with numerous highly influential commentaries. In East Asia, the Satyasiddhi śāstra was also influential.
Another influential tradition is that of Dignāga's Buddhist logic whose work focused on epistemology. He produced the Pramānasamuccaya, and later Dharmakirti wrote the Pramānavārttikā, which was a commentary and reworking of the Dignaga text.
Later Tibetan and Chinese Buddhists continued the tradition of writing commentaries.
Classifications
Dating back at least to the Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra is a classification of the corpus of Buddhism into three categories, based on ways of understanding the nature of reality, known as the "Three Turnings of the Dharma Wheel". According to this view, there were three such "turnings":[112]
- In the first turning, the Buddha taught the Four Noble Truths at Varanasi for those in the śravaka vehicle. It is described as marvelous and wonderful, but requiring interpretation and occasioning controversy.[113] The doctrines of the first turning are exemplified in the Dharmacakra Pravartana Sūtra. This turning represents the earliest phase of the Buddhist teachings and the earliest period in the history of Buddhism.
- In the second turning, the Buddha taught the Mahāyāna teachings to the bodhisattvas, teaching that all phenomena have no-essence, no arising, no passing away, are originally quiescent, and essentially in cessation. This turning is also described as marvelous and wonderful, but requiring interpretation and occasioning controversy.[113] Doctrine of the second turning is established in the Prajñāpāramitā teachings, first put into writing around 100 BCE. In Indian philosophical schools, it is exemplified by the Mādhyamaka school of Nāgārjuna.
- In the third turning, the Buddha taught similar teachings to the second turning, but for everyone in the three vehicles, including all the śravakas, pratyekabuddhas, and bodhisattvas. These were meant to be completely explicit teachings in their entire detail, for which interpretations would not be necessary, and controversy would not occur.[113] These teachings were established by the Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra as early as the 1st or 2nd century CE.[114] In the Indian philosophical schools, the third turning is exemplified by the Yogācāra school of Asaṅga and Vasubandhu.
Some traditions of Tibetan Buddhism consider the teachings of Esoteric Buddhism and Vajrayāna to be the third turning of the Dharma Wheel.[115] Tibetan teachers, particularly of the Gelugpa school, regard the second turning as the highest teaching, because of their particular interpretation of Yogācāra doctrine. The Buddha Nature teachings are normally included in the third turning of the wheel.[citation needed]
The different Chinese Buddhist traditions have different schemes of doctrinal periodization called panjiao which they use to organize the sometimes bewildering array of texts.
Relationship with the early texts
Scholars have noted that many key Mahāyāna ideas are closely connected to the earliest texts of Buddhism. The seminal work of Mahāyāna philosophy, Nāgārjuna's Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, mentions the canon's Katyāyana Sūtra (SA 301) by name, and may be an extended commentary on that work.[116] Nāgārjuna systematized the Mādhyamaka school of Mahāyāna philosophy. He may have arrived at his positions from a desire to achieve a consistent exegesis of the Buddha's doctrine as recorded in the canon. In his eyes the Buddha was not merely a forerunner, but the very founder of the Mādhyamaka system.[117] Nāgārjuna also referred to a passage in the canon regarding "nirvanic consciousness" in two different works.[118]
Yogācāra, the other prominent Mahāyāna school in dialectic with the Mādhyamaka school, gave a special significance to the canon's Lesser Discourse on Emptiness (MA 190).[119] A passage there (which the discourse itself emphasizes) is often quoted in later Yogācāra texts as a true definition of emptiness.[120] According to Walpola Rahula, the thought presented in the Yogācāra school's Abhidharma-samuccaya is undeniably closer to that of the Pali Nikayas than is that of the Theravadin Abhidhamma.[121]
Both the Mādhyamikas and the Yogācārins saw themselves as preserving the Buddhist Middle Way between the extremes of nihilism (everything as unreal) and substantialism (substantial entities existing). The Yogācārins criticized the Mādhyamikas for tending towards nihilism, while the Mādhyamikas criticized the Yogācārins for tending towards substantialism.[122]
Key Mahāyāna texts introducing the concepts of bodhicitta and Buddha nature also use language parallel to passages in the canon containing the Buddha's description of "luminous mind" and appear to have evolved from this idea.[123][124]
Budismo Mahāyāna contemporáneo
The main contemporary traditions of Mahāyāna in Asia are:
- The East Asian Mahāyāna traditions of China, Korea, Japan and Vietnam, also known as "Eastern Buddhism". Peter Harvey estimates that there are about 360 million Eastern Buddhists in Asia.[125]
- The Indo-Tibetan tradition (mainly found in Tibet, Mongolia, Bhutan, parts of India and Nepal), also known as "Northern Buddhism". According to Harvey "the number of people belonging to Northern Buddhism totals only around 18.2 million."[126]
There are also some minor Mahāyāna traditions practiced by minority groups, such as Newar Buddhism practiced by the Newar people (Nepal) and Azhaliism practiced by the Bai people (Yunnan).
Furthermore, there are also various new religious movements which either see themselves as Mahāyāna or are strongly influenced by Mahāyāna Buddhism. Examples of these include: Hòa Hảo, Won Buddhism, Triratna Buddhist Community and Sōka Gakkai.
Lastly, some religious traditions such as Bon and Shugendo are strongly influenced by Mahāyāna Buddhism, though they may not considered as being "Buddhist" per se.
Most of the major forms of contemporary Mahāyāna Buddhism are also practiced by Asian immigrant populations in the West and also by western convert Buddhists. For more on this topic see: Buddhism in the West.
Chinese
Contemporary Chinese Mahāyāna Buddhism (also known as Han Buddhism) is practiced through many varied forms, such as Chan, Pure land and mantra practices. This group is the largest population of Buddhists in the world. There are between 228 and 239 million Mahāyāna Buddhists in the People's Republic of China (this does not include the Tibetan and Mongolian Buddhists who practice Tibetan Buddhism).[125]
Harvey also gives the East Asian Mahāyāna Buddhist population in other nations as follows: Taiwanese Buddhists, 8 million; Malaysian Buddhists, 5.5 million; Singaporean Buddhists, 1.5 million; Hong Kong, 0.7 million; Indonesian Buddhists, 4 million, The Philippines: 2.3 million.[125] Most of these are Han Chinese populations.
Historically, Chinese Buddhism was divided into different schools (zong), such as Sanlun, Faxiang, Tiantai, Huayan, Pure Land, Chan, and Mantra (Zhenyan).[127] Today, most temples and institutions do not belong to a single "school" (as is common in Japanese Buddhism), but draw from various elements of Chinese Buddhist thought and practice. Though Buddhism (like all religions) suffered immensely during the cultural revolution era (1966-1976). During this period, all temples and monasteries closed, and many were destroyed. The reform and opening up period saw a recovery of Buddhism and since then the growth of Chinese Buddhism in mainland China has been called "extraordinary".[128]
The modern development of an ideaology called Humanistic Buddhism (Chinese: 人間佛教; pinyin: rénjiān fójiào, more literally "Buddhism for the Human World") has also been influential on Chinese Buddhist leaders and institutions.[129] Chinese Buddhists may also practice some form of religious syncretism with other Chinese religions.[130] Chinese Buddhism is practice in mainland China, as well as in Taiwan and wherever there are Chinese diaspora communities.
Korean
Korean Buddhism consists mostly of the Korean Seon school (i.e. Zen), primarily represented by the Jogye Order and the Taego Order. Korean Seon also includes some Pure Land practice.[131] It is mainly practiced in South Korea, with a rough population of about 10.9 million Buddhists.[125] There are also some minor schools, such as the Cheontae (i.e. Korean Tiantai), and the esoteric Jingak and Chinŏn schools.
While North Korea's totalitarian government remains repressive and ambivalent towards religion, at least 11 percent of the population is considered to be Buddhist according to Williams.[132]
Japanese
Japanese Buddhism is divided into numerous traditions which include various sects of Pure Land Buddhism, Tendai, Nichiren Buddhism, Shingon and Zen. There are also various Mahāyāna oriented Japanese new religions that arose in the post-war period. Many of these new religions are lay movements like Sōka Gakkai and Agon Shū.[133]
An estimate of the Japanese Mahāyāna Buddhist population is given by Harvey as 52 million and a recent 2018 survey puts the number at 84 million.[125][134] It should also be noted that many Japanese Buddhists also participate in Shinto practices, such as visiting shrines, collecting amulets and attending festivals.[135]
Vietnamese
Vietnamese Buddhism is strongly influenced by the Chinese tradition. It is a synthesis of numerous practices and ideas. Vietnamese Mahāyāna draws practices from Vietnamese Thiền (Chan/Zen), Tịnh độ (Pure Land), and Mật Tông (Mantrayana) and its philosophy from Hoa Nghiêm (Huayan) and Thiên Thai (Tiantai).[136] New Mahāyāna movements have also developed in the modern era, perhaps the most influential of which has been Thích Nhất Hạnh's Plum Village Tradition, which also draws from Theravada Buddhism.
Though Vietnamese Buddhism suffered extensively during the Vietnam war (1955-1975) and during subsequent communist takeover of the south, there has been a revival of the religion since the liberalization period following 1986. There are about 43 million Vietnamese Mahāyāna Buddhists.[125]
Northern Buddhism
Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism or "Northern" Buddhism derives from the Indian Vajrayana Buddhism that was adopted in medieval Tibet. Though it includes numerous tantric Buddhist practices not found in East Asian Mahāyāna, Northern Buddhism still considers itself as part of Mahāyāna Buddhism (albeit as one which also contains a more effective and distinct vehicle or yana).
Contemporary Northern Buddhism is traditionally practiced mainly in the Himalayan regions and in some regions of Central Asia, including:[138]
- The Tibet autonomous region (PRC): 5.4 million
- North and North-east India (Sikkhim, Ladakh, West Bengal, Jammu and Kashmir): 0.4 million
- Pakistan: 0.16 million
- Nepal: 2.9 million
- Bhutan: 0.49 million
- Mongolia: 2.7 million
- Inner Mongolia (PRC): 5 million
- Buryatia, Tuva and Kalmykia (Russian Federation): 0.7 million
As with Eastern Buddhism, the practice of northern Buddhism declined in Tibet, China and Mongolia during the communist takeover of these regions (Mongolia: 1924, Tibet: 1959). Tibetan Buddhism continued to be practiced among the Tibetan diaspora population, as well as by other Himalayan peoples in Bhutan, Ladakh and Nepal. Post 1980s though, Northern Buddhism has seen a revival in both Tibet and Mongolia due to more liberal government policies towards religious freedom.[139] Northern Buddhism is also now practiced in the Western world by western convert Buddhists.
Escuela Theravāda
Role of the Bodhisattva
In the early Buddhist texts, and as taught by the modern Theravada school, the goal of becoming a teaching Buddha in a future life is viewed as the aim of a small group of individuals striving to benefit future generations after the current Buddha's teachings have been lost, but in the current age there is no need for most practitioners to aspire to this goal. Theravada texts do, however, hold that this is a more perfectly virtuous goal.[140]
Paul Williams writes that some modern Theravada meditation masters in Thailand are popularly regarded as bodhisattvas.[141]
Cholvijarn observes that prominent figures associated with the Self perspective in Thailand have often been famous outside scholarly circles as well, among the wider populace, as Buddhist meditation masters and sources of miracles and sacred amulets. Like perhaps some of the early Mahāyāna forest hermit monks, or the later Buddhist Tantrics, they have become people of power through their meditative achievements. They are widely revered, worshipped, and held to be arhats or (note!) bodhisattvas.
Theravāda and Hīnayāna
In the 7th century, the Chinese Buddhist monk Xuanzang describes the concurrent existence of the Mahāvihara and the Abhayagiri Vihara in Sri Lanka. He refers to the monks of the Mahāvihara as the "Hīnayāna Sthaviras" (Theras), and the monks of the Abhayagiri Vihara as the "Mahāyāna Sthaviras".[142] Xuanzang further writes:[143]
The Mahāvihāravāsins reject the Mahāyāna and practice the Hīnayāna, while the Abhayagirivihāravāsins study both Hīnayāna and Mahāyāna teachings and propagate the Tripiṭaka.
The modern Theravāda school is usually described as belonging to Hīnayāna.[144][145][146][147][148] Some authors have argued that it should not be considered such from the Mahāyāna perspective. Their view is based on a different understanding of the concept of Hīnayāna. Rather than regarding the term as referring to any school of Buddhism that has not accepted the Mahāyāna canon and doctrines, such as those pertaining to the role of the bodhisattva,[145][147] these authors argue that the classification of a school as "Hīnayāna" should be crucially dependent on the adherence to a specific phenomenological position. They point out that unlike the now-extinct Sarvāstivāda school, which was the primary object of Mahāyāna criticism, the Theravāda does not claim the existence of independent entities (dharmas); in this it maintains the attitude of early Buddhism.[149][150][151] Adherents of Mahāyāna Buddhism disagreed with the substantialist thought of the Sarvāstivādins and Sautrāntikas, and in emphasizing the doctrine of emptiness, Kalupahana holds that they endeavored to preserve the early teaching.[152] The Theravādins too refuted the Sarvāstivādins and Sautrāntikas (and other schools) on the grounds that their theories were in conflict with the non-substantialism of the canon. The Theravāda arguments are preserved in the Kathāvatthu.[153]
Some contemporary Theravādin figures have indicated a sympathetic stance toward the Mahāyāna philosophy found in texts such as the Heart Sūtra (Skt. Prajñāpāramitā Hṛdaya) and Nāgārjuna's Fundamental Stanzas on the Middle Way (Skt. Mūlamadhyamakakārikā).[154][155]
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Notas
- ^ "The Mahayana, 'Great Vehicle' or 'Great Carriage' (for carrying all beings to nirvana), is also, and perhaps more correctly and accurately, known as the Bodhisattvayana, the bodhisattva's vehicle." Warder, A.K. (3rd edn. 1999). Indian Buddhism: p. 338
- ^ Karashima: "I have assumed that, in the earliest stage of the transmission of the Lotus Sūtra, the Middle Indic forn jāṇa or *jāna (Pkt < Skt jñāna, yāna) had stood in these places ... I have assumed, further, that the Mahāyānist terms buddha-yānā ("the Buddha-vehicle"), mahāyāna ("the great vehicle"), hīnayāna ("the inferior vehicle") meant originally buddha-jñāna ("buddha-knowledge"), mahājñāna ("great knowledge") and hīnajñāna ("inferior knowledge")." Karashima, Seishi (2001). Some Features of the Language of the Saddharma-puṇḍarīka-sūtra, Indo-Iranian Journal 44: 207–230
- ^ Warder: "The sudden appearance of large numbers of (Mahayana) teachers and texts (in North India in the second century AD) would seem to require some previous preparation and development, and this we can look for in the South." Warder, A.K. (3rd edn. 1999). Indian Buddhism: p. 335.
- ^ "The most important evidence – in fact the only evidence – for situating the emergence of the Mahayana around the beginning of the common era was not Indian evidence at all, but came from China. Already by the last quarter of the 2nd century CE, there was a small, seemingly idiosyncratic collection of substantial Mahayana sutras translated into what Erik Zürcher calls 'broken Chinese' by an Indoscythian, whose Indian name has been reconstructed as Lokaksema." Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004): p. 492
- ^ "As scholars have moved away from this limited corpus, and have begun to explore a wider range of Mahayana sūtras, they have stumbled on, and have started to open up, a literature that is often stridently ascetic and heavily engaged in reinventing the forest ideal, an individualistic, antisocial, ascetic ideal that is encapsulated in the apparently resurrected image of “wandering alone like a rhinoceros”. Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004): p. 494
- ^ "Certainly, we have for this period an extensive body of inscriptions from virtually all parts of India. ... But nowhere in this extensive body of material is there any reference, prior to the fifth century, to a named Mahāyāna.", Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004): p. 493
- ^ "What is particularly disconcerting here is the disconnect between expectation and reality: We know from Chinese translations that large numbers of Mahāyāna sutras were being composed in the period between the beginning of the common era and the fifth century. But outside of texts, at least in India, at exactly the same period, very different – in fact seemingly older – ideas and aspirations appear to be motivating actual behavior, and old and established Hinayana groups appear to be the only ones that are patronized and supported., Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004): p. 494
- ^ "In other words, once nontextual evidence is taken into account the picture changes dramatically. Rather than being datable to the beginning of the common era, this strand of Mahayana Buddhism, at least, appeared to have no visible impact on Indian Buddhist cult practice until the 2nd century, and even then what impact it had was extremely isolated and marginal, and had no lasting or long-term consequences – there were no further references to Amitabha in Indian image inscriptions. Almost exactly the same pattern occurs (concerning Mahayana) on an even broader scale when nontextual evidence is considered." Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004): p. 493
- ^ "There are, it seems, very few things that can be said with certainty about Mahayana Buddhism", Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004): p. 492
- ^ "But apart from the fact that it can be said with some certainty that the Buddhism embedded in China, Korea, Tibet, and Japan is Mahayana Buddhism, it is no longer clear what else can be said with certainty about Mahayana Buddhism itself, and especially about its earlier, and presumably formative, period in India.", Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004): p. 492
- ^ "It has become increasingly clear that Mahayana Buddhism was never one thing, but rather, it seems, a loosely bound bundle of many, and – like Walt Whitman – was large and could contain, in both senses of the term, contradictions, or at least antipodal elements." Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004): p. 492
- ^ Gombrich: "It is true that the term translated 'expounding in means', upaya-kausalya, is post-canonical, but the exercise of expounding to which it refers, the ability to adapt one's message to the audience, is of enormous importance in the Pali Canon." Gombrich, Richard F. (1997). How Buddhism Began. Munshiram Manoharlal: p. 17
Referencias
- ^ Harvey (2013), p. 189.
- ^ Harvey (2013), pp. 108-109.
- ^ a b Damien Keown (2003), A Dictionary of Buddhism, Oxford University Press, p. 38
- ^ Harvey (2013), p. 111.
- ^ Williams, Paul, Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, Routledge, 2008, p. 21.
- ^ a b Woodhead, Linda; Partridge, Christopher Hugh; Kawanami, Hiroko, eds. (2016). Religions in the modern world : traditions and transformations (Third ed.). Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge. ISBN 978-0415858809. OCLC 916409066.
- ^ Foltz, Richard (2013). Religions of Iran:From Prehistory to the Present. p. 95. ISBN 978-1780743097. Retrieved 2017-12-18.
In the centuries before the Arab conquests Buddhism was spread throughout the eastern Iranian world. Buddhist sites have been found in Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan, as well as within Iran itself.
- ^ Johnson, Todd M.; Grim, Brian J. (2013). The World's Religions in Figures: An Introduction to International Religious Demography (PDF). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell. p. 36. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 October 2013. Retrieved 2 September 2013.
- ^ a b Nattier, Jan (2003), A few good men: the Bodhisattva path according to the Inquiry of Ugra: p. 174
- ^ Nattier, Jan (2003), A few good men: the Bodhisattva path according to the Inquiry of Ugra: p. 172
- ^ W. Rahula, (1996). Theravada – Mahayana Buddhism; in: "Gems of Buddhist Wisdom", Buddhist Missionary Society, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
- ^ a b Williams, Paul. Buddhism. Vol. 3. The origins and nature of Mahāyāna Buddhism. Routledge. 2004. p. 50.
- ^ Karashima, Seishi (2000), Who composed the Lotus Sutra?, Annual Report of The International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University 4, p. 170 (note 115)
- ^ Karashima, Seishi (2015), Vehicle (yāna) and Wisdom (jñāna) in the Lotus Sutra – the Origin of the Notion of yāna in Mahayāna Buddhism, Annual Report of The International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology at Soka University 18, 163–196
- ^ 容易讀錯的字和詞 Archived 2008-06-18 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ 《现代汉语词典》、《远东汉英大辞典》
- ^ a b c Nattier, Jan (2003), A few good men: the Bodhisattva path according to the Inquiry of Ugra: pp. 193–194
- ^ "北傳:雜阿含769經南傳:相應部45相應4經"."長阿含2經".
南傳對應經文「凡越渡海洋、湖泊者,他們造橋離沼澤,人們綁桴,有智慧的人已橫渡。」
- ^ 《增一阿含經·勸請品·八經》:「爾時,尊者拘絺羅便說此偈:『種種果不同,眾生趣亦然,自覺覺人者,我無此辯說。禪智解脫辯,憶本天眼通,能盡苦原本,我無此辯說。』爾時,須深女人便說此偈:『善逝有此智,質直無瑕穢,勇猛有所伏,求於大乘行。』」
- ^ 吳汝鈞《印度大乘佛教思想的特色》:「『阿含經』用「大乘」之名,大扺指佛的教法,而含有尊崇之意。這「大乘」自不同於爾後大乘佛教的「大乘」,但亦非全不相通。大乘佛教自有其發展,但其基本教理,並不遠離佛的本意。」
- ^ 印順《初期大乘佛教之起源與開展》第1章〈序說〉:「佛教的傳入中國,開始譯經,已是西元二世紀中,正是印度佛教「大小兼暢」的時代。......佛教的傳入中國,是大小同時的,所以傳統的部派佛教,在中國沒有能造成堅強的傳統。加上小乘與中國民情,也許不太適合,所以大乘 – 直在有利的情勢下發展。」
- ^ 印順〈雜阿含經部類之整編〉:「宋譯《雜阿含經》,譯出的時代遲了些,而譯者求那跋陀羅,是 – 位唯心大乘師,所以譯文中偶有大乘的名義。......「菩薩摩訶薩」的稱呼,受到了大乘的影響。不過,每成立 – 部派,就有部派所審定集成的經典,在傳承的同 – 宗派中,是不可能大事更張的。《雜阿含經》的「修多羅」部分,與『攝事分』所依經本 – 致,即可以證明。當然,經典在長期流傳中,會因時因地而有多少差別的。求那跋陀羅為唯心大乘師,所譯《雜阿含經》,就偶有 – 二大乘名義,然如依此而說宋譯《雜阿含經》,是大乘佛教時代所完成的,那就誤謬不經了!」
- ^ Acri, Andrea (20 December 2018). "Maritime Buddhism". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Religion. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199340378.013.638. ISBN 9780199340378. Archived from the original on 19 February 2019. Retrieved 30 May 2021.
- ^ Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993. A History of Indian Buddhism. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass: p. 260.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Drewes, David, Early Indian Mahayana Buddhism I: Recent Scholarship, Religion Compass 4/2 (2010): 55–65, doi:10.1111/j.1749-8171.2009.00195.x
- ^ Williams, Paul, Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, Routledge, 2008, p. 5.
- ^ Guang Xing. The Concept of the Buddha: Its Evolution from Early Buddhism to the Trikaya Theory. 2004. pp. 65–66 "Several scholars have suggested that the Prajñāpāramitā probably developed among the Mahasamghikas in Southern India, in the Andhra country, on the Krishna River."
- ^ Williams, Paul. Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations 2nd edition. Routledge, 2009, p. 47.
- ^ Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993. A History of Indian Buddhism. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass: pp. 253, 263, 268
- ^ "The south (of India) was then vigorously creative in producing Mahayana Sutras" – Warder, A.K. (3rd edn. 1999). Indian Buddhism: p. 335.
- ^ a b Williams, Paul, Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, Routledge, 2008, p. 21.
- ^ Padma, Sree. Barber, Anthony W. Buddhism in the Krishna River Valley of Andhra. SUNY Press 2008, p. 1.
- ^ Karashima, 2013.
- ^ Walser, Joseph, Nagarjuna in Context: Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture, Columbia University Press, 2005, p. 25.
- ^ Buswell, Robert E., ed. (2004). Encyclopedia of Buddhism. Macmillan Reference USA. p. 492. ISBN 0-02-865718-7.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)
- ^ Harrison, Paul ‘Who Gets to Ride in the Great Vehicle? Self-image and Identity Among the Followers of Early Mahayana.’ 1987.
- ^ Williams, Paul (2008) Mahāyāna Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations: p. 30.
- ^ Skilton, Andrew (2004 ). A Concise History of Buddhism. p. 94.
- ^ Williams, Paul, Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, Routledge, 2008, p. 6.
- ^ Williams, Paul, Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, Routledge, 2008, p. 16.
- ^ Williams, Paul (2008) Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations: pp. 4–5
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- ^ Williams, Paul (2000) Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition: p. 97
- ^ Walser, Joseph, Nagarjuna in Context: Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture, Columbia University Press, 2005, p. 114.
- ^ a b Walser, Joseph, Nagarjuna in Context: Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture, Columbia University Press, 2005, p. 18.
- ^ Walser, Joseph, Nagarjuna in Context: Mahayana Buddhism and Early Indian Culture, Columbia University Press, 2005, p. 14.
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- ^ Rhie, Marylin M. (2010). Early Buddhist Art of China and Central Asia, Volume 3: The Western Ch'in in Kansu in the Sixteen Kingdoms Period and Inter-relationships with the Buddhist Art of Gandh?ra. BRILL. p. xxxvii, Fig 6.17a. ISBN 978-90-04-18400-8.
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- ^ Pye, Michael (1978). Skillful Means – A concept in Mahayana Buddhism. London: Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd. ISBN 0-7156-1266-2
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- ^ Shi Huifeng, Is "Illusion" a Prajñāpāramitā Creation? The Birth and Death of a Buddhist Cognitive Metaphor, Fo Guang University, Journal of Buddhist Philosophy , Vol. 2, 2016.
- ^ Westerhoff, Jan, Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka: A Philosophical Introduction, Oxford University Press, 2009, pp. 12, 25.
- ^ Williams, Paul, Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition, 2002, pp. 70, 141.
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- ^ Williams, Paul. Buddhist Thought. Routledge 2000, p. 160.
- ^ Paul Williams, Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, Second Edition, Routledge, Oxford, 2009, p. 317
- ^ Kevin Trainor, Buddhism: The Illustrated Guide, Oxford University Press, 2004, p. 207
- ^ a b Zimmermann, Michael (2002), A Buddha Within: The Tathāgatagarbhasūtra, Biblotheca Philologica et Philosophica Buddhica VI, The International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology, Soka University, pp. 82–83
- ^ Williams, Paul, Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition, 2002, pp. 103, 108.
- ^ Williams, Paul, Buddhist Thought: A Complete Introduction to the Indian Tradition, 2002, p. 109.
- ^ Shiro Matsumoto, Critiques of Tathagatagarbha Thought and Critical Buddhism
- ^ Heng-Ching Shih, The Significance Of "Tathagatagarbha" – A Positive Expression Of "Sunyata".
- ^ King, Sallie B. The Doctrine of Buddha-Nature is impeccably Buddhist. In: Jamie Hubbard (ed.), Pruning the Bodhi Tree: The Storm Over Critical Buddhism, Univ of Hawaii Press 1997, pp. 174–179. ISBN 0824819497
- ^ Sebastian, C.D. (2005), Metaphysics and Mysticism in Mahayana Buddhism. Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications: p. 268
- ^ Sebastian, C.D. (2005), Metaphysics and Mysticism in Mahayana Buddhism. Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications: p. 151; cf. also p. 110
- ^ Sebastian, C.D. (2005), Metaphysics and Mysticism in Mahayana Buddhism. Delhi: Sri Satguru Publications: p. 278
- ^ Hirakawa, Akira, A History of Indian Buddhism: From Śākyamuni to Early Mahāyāna, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1993, p. 74.
- ^ Sree Padma. Barber, Anthony W. Buddhism in the Krishna River Valley of Andhra. 2008. p. 68.
- ^ Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism (2004): p. 293
- ^ Akira, Hirakawa (translated and edited by Paul Groner) (1993). A History of Indian Buddhism. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass: p. 252
- ^ Williams, Paul, Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, Routledge, 2008, pp. 40–41.
- ^ Williams, Paul, Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, Routledge, 2008, p. 46.
- ^ Williams, Paul, Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, Routledge, 2008, p. 38.
- ^ Williams, Paul, Mahayana Buddhism: The Doctrinal Foundations, Routledge, 2008, p. 23.
- ^ Conze, Edward, The Perfection of Wisdom in eight thousand lines and its verse summary
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- ^ a b Boin-Webb, Sara (tr). Rahula, Walpola (tr). Asanga. Abhidharma Samuccaya: The Compendium of Higher Teaching. 2001. pp. 199–200
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- ^ a b c Keenan, John (2000). The Scripture on the Explication of the Underlying Meaning. Numata Center. ISBN 1-886439-10-9: p. 49
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- ^ Walser, Joseph G. Genealogies of Mahayana Buddhism: Emptiness, Power and the question of Origin Routledge, 2018, chapter 2.
- ^ Kalupahana, David (2006). Mulamadhyamakakarika of Nagarjuna. Motilal Banarsidass: p. 5.
- ^ Lindtner, Christian (1997). Master of Wisdom. Dharma Publishing: p. 324.
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- ^ Dan Lusthaus, Buddhist Phenomenology. Routledge, 2002, p. 44, note 5. Lusthaus draws attention to Rahula's Zen and the Taming of the Bull.
- ^ Harvey, Peter (1993). An Introduction to Buddhism. Cambridge University Press: p. 106.
- ^ Analayo "The Luminous Mind in Theravāda and Dharmaguptaka Discourses" Journal of the Oxford Centre for Buddhist Studies, 2017, 13: 10–51;
- ^ Harvey, Peter (1989). Consciousness Mysticism in the Discourses of the Buddha. In Werner, Karel ed., The Yogi and the Mystic. Curzon Press: p. 97.
- ^ a b c d e f Harvey, Peter (2013). An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices, p. 403.
- ^ Harvey, Peter (2013). An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices, p. 413.
- ^ Harvey, Peter (2013). An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices, pp. 213-218.
- ^ Harvey, Peter (2013). An Introduction to Buddhism: Teachings, History and Practices, p. 410.
- ^ Bingenheimer, Marcus (2007). "Some Remarks on the Usage of Renjian Fojiao 人間佛教 and the Contribution of Venerable Yinshun to Chinese Buddhist Modernism". In Hsu, Mutsu; Chen, Jinhua; Meeks, Lori (eds.). Development and Practice of Humanitarian Buddhism: Interdisciplinary Perspectives. Hua-lien (Taiwan): Tzuchi University Press. pp. 141–161. ISBN 978-986-7625-08-3.
- ^ J. Ching (2016). Chinese Religions, p. 205. Springer.
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Fuentes
- "Mahayana". Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2002.
Otras lecturas
- Beal (1871). Catena of Buddhist Scriptures from the Chinese, London, Trübner
- Karashima, Seishi, "Was the Așțasāhasrikā Prajñāparamitā Compiled in Gandhāra in Gandhārī?" Annual Report of the International Research Institute for Advanced Buddhology, Soka University, vol. XVI (2013).
- Lowenstein, Tom (1996). The Vision of the Buddha, Boston: Little Brown, ISBN 1-903296-91-9
- Schopen, G. "The inscription on the Kusan image of Amitabha and the character of the early Mahayana in India", Journal of the International Association of Buddhist Studies 10, 1990
- Suzuki, D.T. (1914). "The Development of Mahayana Buddhism", The Monist Volume 24, Issue 4, 1914, pp. 565–581
- Suzuki, D.T. (1908). Outline of Mahayana Buddhism, Open Court, Chicago
- Williams, Paul (1989). Mahayana Buddhism, Routledge.
- Karel Werner; Jeffrey Samuels; Bhikkhu Bodhi; Peter Skilling, Bhikkhu Anālayo, David McMahan (2013). The Bodhisattva Ideal: Essays on the Emergence of Mahayana. Buddhist Publication Society. ISBN 978-955-24-0396-5.CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
enlaces externos
- Digital Dictionary of Buddhism
- Comparison of Buddhist Traditions (Mahayana – Therevada – Tibetan)
- Introduction to Mahayana on Kagyu Samye Ling's website
- The Mahayana Mahaparinirvana Sutra: complete text and analysis
- Buddhas and Bodhisattvas in Mahayana Buddhism
- Arahants, Buddhas and Bodhisattvas by Bhikkhu Bodhi
- The Bodhisattva Ideal in Theravāda Theory and Practice by Jeffrey Samuel