Coordenadas : 32 ° N 53 ° E / 32°N 53°E
| República Islámica de Iránجمهوری اسلامی ایران ( persa ) Jomhuri-ye Eslāmi-ye Irān | |
|---|---|
Himno: سرود ملی جمهوری اسلامی ایران Sorud-e Melli-ye Jomhuri-ye Eslāmi-ye Irān ( " Himno Nacional de la República Islámica de Irán " ) | |
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| Capitaly ciudad más grande | Teherán 35 ° 41′N 51 ° 25′E / 35.683°N 51.417°E |
| Lenguajes oficiales | persa |
| Idiomas regionales reconocidos | |
| Grupos étnicos | Lista de etnias
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| Religión |
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| Demonym (s) |
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| Gobierno | República islámica presidencial teocrática jomeinista unitaria bajo un líder supremo |
| • Líder supremo | Ali Khamenei |
| • presidente | Hassan Rouhani |
| • Vicepresidente | Eshaq Jahangiri |
| • Presidente del Parlamento | Mohammad Bagher Ghalibaf |
| • Presidente del Tribunal Supremo | Ebrahim Raisi |
| Legislatura | Asamblea Consultiva Islámica |
| Historia del establecimiento | |
| • Imperio mediano | C. 678 a. C. |
| • Imperio aqueménida | 550 a. C. |
| • Imperio parto | 247 a. C. |
| • Imperio Sasánida | 224 d . C. [4] |
| • Dinastía Buyid | 934 |
| • Dinastía safávida | 1501 [5] |
| • Dinastía Afsharid | 1736 |
| • Dinastía Zand | 1751 |
| • Dinastía Qajar | 1796 |
| • Dinastía Pahlavi | 15 de diciembre de 1925 |
| • Revolución islámica | 11 de febrero de 1979 |
| • Constitución actual | 3 de diciembre de 1979 |
| • Última enmienda | 28 de julio de 1989 |
| Área | |
| • Total | 1,648,195 km 2 (636,372 millas cuadradas) ( 17 ° ) |
| • Agua (%) | 1,63 (en 2015) [6] |
| Población | |
| • Estimación 2019 |  83,183,741 [7] ( 17º ) |
| • Densidad | 48 / km 2 (124,3 / millas cuadradas) ( 162º ) |
| PIB ( PPA ) | Estimación 2020 |
| • Total |  $ 1.007 billones [8] ( 18 ° ) |
| • Per cápita | $ 11,963 [8] ( 66º ) |
| PIB (nominal) | Estimación 2020 |
| • Total |  $ 611 mil millones [8] ( 21º ) |
| • Per cápita | $ 7,257 [8] ( 78º ) |
| Gini (2017) |  40,8 [9] medio |
| IDH (2019) | 0,783 [10] alto · 70º |
| Divisa | Rial iraní ( ریال ) ( IRR ) |
| Zona horaria | UTC +3: 30 ( IRST ) |
| • Verano ( DST ) | UTC +4: 30 (IRDT) |
| Formato de fecha | aaaa / mm / dd ( SH ) |
| Lado de conducción | derecho |
| Código de llamada | +98 |
| Código ISO 3166 | IR |
| TLD de Internet |
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 | Es posible que necesite soporte de renderizado para mostrar correctamente el texto persa en este artículo. |
Irán ( persa : ایران Irān [ʔiːɾɒːn] ( escuchar ) ), también llamado Persia [11] y oficialmente la República Islámica de Irán ( persa : جمهوری اسلامی ایران Jomhuri-ye-ye Eslami Irān ( escuchar ) [dʒomhuːˌɾije eslɒːˌmije ʔiːˈɾɒn] ), es un país de Asia occidental . Limita al noroeste con Armenia y Azerbaiyán , [a] al norte con el Mar Caspio , al noreste con Turkmenistán , al este con Afganistán , al sureste con Pakistán , al sur con el Golfo Pérsico y el Golfo. de Omán , y al oeste con Turquía e Irak . Irán cubre un área de 1,648,195 km 2 (636,372 millas cuadradas), con una población de 83 millones. Es el segundo país más grande de Oriente Medio., y su capital y ciudad más grande es Teherán .
Irán es el hogar de una de las civilizaciones más antiguas del mundo, [12] [13] comenzando con la formación de los reinos elamitas en el cuarto milenio antes de Cristo. Fue unificado por primera vez por los medos iraníes en el siglo VII a. C. [14] y alcanzó su apogeo territorial en el siglo VI a. C., cuando Ciro el Grande fundó el Imperio aqueménida , que se convirtió en uno de los imperios más grandes de la historia y el primero del mundo. superpotencia. [15] El imperio cayó ante Alejandro Magno en el siglo IV a. C. y se dividió en varios estados helenísticos.. Una rebelión iraní estableció el Imperio parto en el siglo III a. C., que fue sucedido en el siglo III d. C. por el Imperio Sasánida , una gran potencia mundial durante los siguientes cuatro siglos. [16] [17] Los musulmanes árabes conquistaron el imperio en el siglo VII d. C., lo que llevó a la islamización de Irán , y posteriormente se convirtió en un importante centro de cultura y aprendizaje islámicos , con su arte, literatura, filosofía y arquitectura extendiéndose por el mundo musulmán y más allá durante la Edad de Oro islámica . Durante los dos siglos siguientes, surgieron una serie de dinastías musulmanas nativas antes que los turcos selyúcidas.y los mongoles conquistaron la región. En el siglo XV, los nativos safávidas restablecieron un estado iraní unificado y una identidad nacional, [4] con la conversión del país al Islam chiíta marcando un punto de inflexión en la historia iraní y musulmana . [5] [18] Bajo el reinado de Nader Shah en el siglo XVIII, Irán una vez más se convirtió en una gran potencia mundial, [19] [ página necesaria ] aunque en el siglo XIX una serie de conflictos con el Imperio Ruso condujeron a importantes conflictos territoriales pérdidas. [20] [21]A principios del siglo XX se produjo la Revolución Constitucional persa . Los esfuerzos para nacionalizar su suministro de combustibles fósiles de las empresas occidentales llevaron a un golpe angloamericano en 1953 , que resultó en un mayor gobierno autocrático bajo Mohammad Reza Pahlavi y una creciente influencia política occidental. [22] Luego lanzó una serie de reformas de gran alcance en 1963 . [23] Después de la Revolución Iraní , la actual República Islámica fue establecida en 1979 [24] por Ruhollah Khomeini, quien se convirtió en el primer Líder Supremo del país .
El Gobierno de Irán es una teocracia islámica que incluye elementos de una democracia presidencial , con la máxima autoridad conferida a un "Líder Supremo" autocrático, [25] cargo que ocupó Ali Khamenei desde 1989 tras la muerte de Jomeini. El gobierno iraní es ampliamente considerado autoritario y ha atraído críticas generalizadas por sus importantes limitaciones y abusos contra los derechos humanos y las libertades civiles, [26] [27] [28] [29] incluidas varias supresiones violentas de protestas masivas, elecciones injustas y derechos limitados para las mujeres yniños .
Irán es una potencia regional y media , con una ubicación geopolíticamente estratégica. [30] Irán es miembro fundador de la ONU , ECO , OCI y OPEP . Tiene grandes reservas de combustibles fósiles , incluido el segundo mayor suministro de gas natural del mundo y la tercera mayor reserva probada de petróleo . [31] El rico legado cultural del país se refleja en parte en sus 22 sitios del Patrimonio Mundial de la UNESCO , el tercer número más grande de Asia y el décimo más grande del mundo. [32]Históricamente, un país multiétnico, Irán sigue siendo una sociedad pluralista que comprende numerosos grupos étnicos, lingüísticos y religiosos , siendo los más grandes los persas , azeríes , kurdos , mazandaraníes y lurs . [3]
Nombre
El término Irán deriva directamente del persa medio Ērān , atestiguado por primera vez en una inscripción del siglo III en Rustam Relief , con la inscripción parta que lo acompaña usando el término Aryān , en referencia a los iraníes . [33] El iraní medio ērān y aryān son formas plurales oblicuas de los sustantivos gentilic ēr- (persa medio) y ary- (parto), ambos derivados del proto-iranio * arya- (que significa " ario ", es decir, "de los iraníes") ), [33][34] reconocido como un derivado del protoindoeuropeo * ar-yo- , que significa "uno que ensambla (hábilmente)". [35] En las lenguas iraníes , el gentilicio se atestigua como una auto-identificador, incluido en inscripciones antiguas y la literatura de la Avesta , [36] [b] y restos también en otros nombres étnicos iraníes Alan ( Ossetian : Ир Ir ) y Hierro ( Ирон ). [34] Según la mitología iraní, el nombre del país proviene del nombre de Iraj., un príncipe legendario y shah que fue asesinado por sus hermanos. [37]
Históricamente, Irán ha sido referido como Persia por el oeste , [11] debido principalmente a los escritos de griegos historiadores que hace referencia a todas Irán como Persis ( griego antiguo : Περσίς ; desde el persa antiguo 𐎱𐎠𐎼𐎿 Parsa ), [38] que significa " tierra de los persas ", mientras que la propia Persis era una de las provincias del antiguo Irán que hoy se conoce como Fars . [39] Como la interacción más extensa, los antiguos griegoscon cualquier forastero estaba con los persas, el término persistió, incluso mucho después de las guerras greco-persas (499-449 a. C.).
En 1935, Reza Shah solicitó a la comunidad internacional que se refiriera al país por su nombre nativo, Irán , en Nowruz , el 21 de marzo de 1935; efectivo el 22 de marzo de ese año. [40] [41] La oposición al cambio de nombre llevó a la revocación de la decisión en 1959, y el profesor Ehsan Yarshater , editor de Encyclopædia Iranica , propagó un movimiento para usar Persia e Irán indistintamente. [42] Hoy en día, tanto Irán como Persia se utilizan en contextos culturales, mientras que Irán sigue siendo insustituible en los contextos estatales oficiales. [43]
El uso histórico y cultural de la palabra Irán no se limita al estado moderno propiamente dicho. [44] [45] [46] " Gran Irán " ( Irānzamīn o Irān e Bozorg ) [47] se refiere a territorios de las zonas culturales y lingüísticas iraníes. Además del Irán moderno, incluye partes del Cáucaso , Anatolia , Mesopotamia , Afganistán y Asia Central . [48] [ página necesaria ]
Pronunciación
La pronunciación persa de Irán es[ʔiːˈɾɒːn] . Común Commonwealth inglés pronunciaciones de Irán se enumeran en el Diccionario Oxford de Inglés como / ɪ r ɑː n / y / ɪ r æ n / , [49] mientras que del inglés americano diccionarios como Merriam-Webster s' proporcionan las pronunciaciones que mapean / ɪ r ɑː n , - r æ n , aɪ r æ n /,[50]o también enUnabridged Dictionary de Random House Webstercomo/ ɪ r æ n , ɪ r ɑː n , aɪ r æ n / . LosDiccionario Cambridgelistas/ ɪ r ɑː n /como la pronunciación británica y/ ɪ r æ n /como la pronunciación americana. Del mismo modo, con sede en GlasgowCollins English Dictionary ofrecepronunciaciones en inglés y en inglés americano. La guía de pronunciación de Voz de América también proporciona / ɪ r ɑː n / . [51]
La pronunciación americana Inglés / aɪ r æ n / ocular RAN puede ser escuchado en los medios de comunicación estadounidenses. Max Fisher en The Washington Post [52] prescribe / i r ɑː n / para Irán , mientras que la penalización / aɪ r æ n / . El American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language , en la boleta de uso de 2014 del diccionario, abordó el tema de las pronunciaciones de Irán e Irak. [53] Según esta encuesta, las pronunciaciones/ Ɪ r ɑː n / y / ɪ r æ n / fueron consideradas casi igualmente aceptables, mientras / ɪ r ɑː n / fue preferido por la mayoría de panelistas que participan en la votación. Con respecto a la / aɪ r æ n / pronunciación, más del 70% de los panelistas consideró inaceptable. Entre las razones dadas por aquellos panelistas fueron que / aɪ r æ n /tiene "connotaciones de halcón" y suena "más enojado", "xenófobo", "ignorante" y "no ... cosmopolita". El / aɪ r æ n / pronunciación estándar y sigue siendo aceptable, se refleja en la entrada de Irán en el American Heritage Dictionary sí mismo, así como en cada uno de los otros diccionarios principales de Inglés Americano.
Historia
Prehistoria
Los primeros artefactos arqueológicos atestiguados en Irán, como los excavados en Kashafrud y Ganj Par en el norte de Irán, confirman una presencia humana en Irán desde el Paleolítico Inferior . [55] Los artefactos neandertales de Irán del Paleolítico Medio se han encontrado principalmente en la región de Zagros , en sitios como Warwasi y Yafteh . [56] [57] [ página necesaria ] Desde el décimo hasta el séptimo milenio antes de Cristo, las primeras comunidades agrícolas comenzaron a florecer en y alrededor de la región de Zagros en el oeste de Irán, incluido Chogha Golan, [58] [59] Chogha Bonut , [60] [61] y Chogha Mish . [62] [63] [ página necesaria ] [64]
La ocupación de caseríos agrupados en el área de Susa , según lo determinado por la datación por radiocarbono , varía entre 4395-3955 y 3680-3490 aC. [65] Hay docenas de sitios prehistóricos en la meseta iraní, lo que apunta a la existencia de culturas antiguas y asentamientos urbanos en el cuarto milenio antes de Cristo. [64] [66] [67] Durante la Edad del Bronce , el territorio del actual Irán fue el hogar de varias civilizaciones, incluidas Elam , Jiroft y Zayanderud . Elam, la más prominente de estas civilizaciones, se desarrolló en el suroeste junto con las de Mesopotamia., y continuó su existencia hasta el surgimiento de los imperios iraníes. El advenimiento de la escritura en Elam fue paralelo a Sumer , y la escritura cuneiforme elamita se desarrolló desde el tercer milenio antes de Cristo. [68]
Desde el siglo 34 hasta el 20 a. C., el noroeste de Irán fue parte de la cultura Kura-Araxes , que se extendía hasta los vecinos Cáucaso y Anatolia . Desde el primer segundo milenio antes de Cristo, los asirios se establecieron en franjas del oeste de Irán e incorporaron la región a sus territorios.
Antigüedad clásica
En el segundo milenio antes de Cristo, los antiguos pueblos iraníes llegaron a lo que ahora es Irán desde la estepa euroasiática , [69] rivalizando con los colonos nativos de la región. [70] [71] A medida que los iraníes se dispersaban en el área más amplia del Gran Irán y más allá, las fronteras del Irán actual estaban dominadas por tribus medianas , persas y partas .
Desde finales del siglo X hasta finales del siglo VII a. C., los pueblos iraníes, junto con los reinos "preiraníes", cayeron bajo el dominio del Imperio asirio , con sede en el norte de Mesopotamia . [72] [ página necesaria ] Bajo el rey Cyaxares , los medos y los persas se aliaron con el gobernante babilónico Nabopolassar , así como con los escitas y cimerios iraníes , y juntos atacaron el Imperio asirio. La guerra civil devastó el Imperio asirio entre el 616 y el 605 a. C., liberando así a sus respectivos pueblos de tres siglos de dominio asirio. [72]La unificación de las tribus medianas bajo el rey Deioces en el 728 a. C. condujo a la fundación del Imperio Mediano que, en el 612 a. C., controlaba casi todo el territorio del actual Irán y Anatolia oriental . [73] Esto también marcó el final del Reino de Urartu , que posteriormente fue conquistado y disuelto. [74] [75]
En 550 a. C., Ciro el Grande , hijo de Mandane y Cambises I , se hizo cargo del Imperio Mediano y fundó el Imperio aqueménida unificando otras ciudades-estado. La conquista de Media fue el resultado de lo que se llama la revuelta persa . El alboroto fue inicialmente provocado por las acciones del gobernante mediano Astiages , y se extendió rápidamente a otras provincias, ya que se aliaron con los persas. Las conquistas posteriores bajo Ciro y sus sucesores expandieron el imperio para incluir a Lidia , Babilonia , Egipto , partes de los Balcanes y Europa del Este.propiamente dicha, así como las tierras al oeste de los ríos Indo y Oxus .
539 a. C. fue el año en el que las fuerzas persas derrotaron al ejército babilónico en Opis y marcó el final de unos cuatro siglos de dominación mesopotámica de la región al conquistar el Imperio neobabilónico . Ciro entró en Babilonia y se presentó como un monarca mesopotámico tradicional. El arte y la iconografía aqueménida posteriores reflejan la influencia de la nueva realidad política en Mesopotamia.
En su mayor extensión, el Imperio aqueménida incluía territorios del actual Irán, la República de Azerbaiyán ( Arran y Shirvan ), Armenia , Georgia , Turquía ( Anatolia ), gran parte de las regiones costeras del Mar Negro , el noreste de Grecia y el sur de Bulgaria ( Tracia ). , norte de Grecia y Macedonia del Norte ( Paeonia y Macedonia ), Irak , Siria , Líbano , Jordania , Israely los territorios palestinos , todos los centros de población importantes del antiguo Egipto tan al oeste como Libia , Kuwait , el norte de Arabia Saudita , partes de los Emiratos Árabes Unidos y Omán , Pakistán , Afganistán y gran parte de Asia Central , lo que lo convierte en el imperio más grande del mundo. aún había visto. [15]
Se estima que en 480 a. C., 50 millones de personas vivían en el Imperio aqueménida. [76] [77] El imperio en su apogeo gobernó sobre el 44% de la población mundial, la cifra más alta para cualquier imperio en la historia. [78]
El Imperio aqueménida se destaca por la liberación de los judíos exiliados en Babilonia , [79] la construcción de infraestructuras como el Camino Real y el Chapar (servicio postal), y el uso de un idioma oficial , el arameo imperial , en todos sus territorios. [15] El imperio tenía una administración burocrática centralizada bajo el emperador, un gran ejército profesional y servicios civiles, lo que inspiró desarrollos similares en imperios posteriores. [80] [81]
El conflicto eventual en las fronteras occidentales comenzó con la revuelta jónica , que estalló en las guerras greco-persas y continuó durante la primera mitad del siglo V a.C., y terminó con la retirada de los aqueménidas de todos los territorios de los Balcanes y el este. Europa propiamente dicha. [82]
En el 334 a. C., Alejandro Magno invadió el Imperio aqueménida y derrotó al último emperador aqueménida, Darío III , en la batalla de Issus . Tras la muerte prematura de Alejandro, Irán quedó bajo el control del Imperio seléucida helenístico . A mediados del siglo II a. C., el Imperio parto se convirtió en la principal potencia de Irán, y comenzó la archirrivalidad geopolítica de un siglo entre los romanos y los partos, que culminó con las guerras romano-partas . El Imperio parto continuó como una monarquía feudal durante casi cinco siglos, hasta 224 EC, cuando fue sucedido por el Imperio Sasánida . [83]Junto con su archirrival vecino, los romanos - bizantinos , constituyeron las dos potencias más dominantes del mundo en ese momento, durante más de cuatro siglos. [16] [17]
Los Sasánidas establecieron un imperio dentro de las fronteras alcanzadas por los aqueménidas, con su capital en Ctesifonte . La antigüedad tardía se considera uno de los períodos más influyentes de Irán, ya que bajo los sasánidas su influencia llegó a la cultura de la antigua Roma (y a través de ella hasta Europa occidental ), [84] [85] África , [86] China e India , [87] y jugó un papel destacado en la formación del arte medieval de Europa y Asia . [88]
La mayor parte de la era del Imperio Sasánida fue eclipsada por las Guerras Romano-Persa , que asolaron las fronteras occidentales de Anatolia, el Cáucaso occidental , Mesopotamia y el Levante durante más de 700 años. Estas guerras finalmente agotaron tanto a los romanos como a los sasánidas y llevaron a la derrota de ambos por la invasión musulmana. [ cita requerida ]
A lo largo de las eras aqueménida, parta y sasánida, varias ramificaciones de las dinastías iraníes establecieron ramas epónimas en Anatolia y el Cáucaso, incluido el reino póntico , los mihránidas y las dinastías arsácidas de Armenia , Iberia ( Georgia ) y la Albania caucásica (actual -día República de Azerbaiyán y sur de Daguestán ). [ cita requerida ]
Período medieval
Las prolongadas guerras bizantino-sasánidas , sobre todo la guerra culminante de 602-628 , así como el conflicto social dentro del Imperio sasánida , abrieron el camino para una invasión árabe de Irán en el siglo VII. [89] [90] El imperio fue inicialmente derrotado por el Califato Rashidun , que fue sucedido por el Califato Omeya , seguido por el Califato Abbasida . Siguió un proceso prolongado y gradual de islamización impuesta por el estado , que tuvo como objetivo a la entonces mayoría zoroástrica de Irán e incluyó persecución religiosa, [91] [92] [93] demolición de bibliotecas [94]y templos de fuego, [95] una penalización fiscal especial (" jizya "), [96] [97] y cambio de idioma. [98] [99]
En 750, los abasíes derrocaron a los omeyas. [100] Árabes musulmanes y persas de todos los estratos componían el ejército rebelde, que estaba unido por el musulmán persa convertido, Abu Muslim . [101] [102] [103] En su lucha por el poder, la sociedad de su época se volvió poco a poco cosmopolita y la vieja sencillez árabe y la dignidad, el porte y el prestigio aristocráticos se perdieron. Persas y turcos comenzaron a reemplazar a los árabes en la mayoría de los campos. La fusión de la nobleza árabe con las razas sometidas, la práctica de la poligamia y el concubinato, dio lugar a una amalgama social en la que las lealtades se volvieron inciertas y surgió una jerarquía de funcionarios, una burocracia al principio persa y luego turca que disminuyó el prestigio y el poder abasíes para siempre. . [104]
Después de dos siglos de dominio árabe, los reinos iraníes semiindependientes e independientes, incluidos los tahiríes , los saffaríes , los samaníes y los buyidas, comenzaron a aparecer al margen del declive del califato abasí. [ cita requerida ]
La floreciente literatura , filosofía , matemáticas , medicina , astronomía y arte de Irán se convirtieron en elementos importantes en la formación de una nueva era para la civilización iraní, durante un período conocido como la Edad de Oro Islámica . [108] [109] La Edad de Oro islámica alcanzó su apogeo en los siglos X y XI, durante los cuales Irán fue el principal teatro de actividades científicas. [110]
El renacimiento cultural que comenzó en el período abasí condujo a un resurgimiento de la identidad nacional iraní ; por lo tanto, los intentos de arabización nunca tuvieron éxito en Irán. [ cita requerida ] El movimiento Shu'ubiyya se convirtió en un catalizador para que los iraníes recuperaran la independencia en sus relaciones con los invasores árabes. [111] El efecto más notable de este movimiento fue la continuación de la lengua persa atestiguada por las obras del poeta épico Ferdowsi , ahora considerado la figura más destacada de la literatura iraní. [ cita requerida ]
El siglo X vio una migración masiva de tribus turcas de Asia Central a la meseta iraní. [112] Los miembros de las tribus turcas se utilizaron por primera vez en el ejército abasí como mamelucos (guerreros esclavos), reemplazando a los elementos iraníes y árabes dentro del ejército. [101] Como resultado, los mamelucos ganaron un poder político significativo. En 999, grandes porciones de Irán quedaron brevemente bajo el dominio de los Ghaznavids , cuyos gobernantes eran de origen turco mameluco, y más tarde bajo los imperios Seljuk y Khwarezmian . [112] Posteriormente, los selyúcidas dieron lugar al Sultanato de Ron.en Anatolia, mientras llevaban consigo su identidad completamente perianizada. [113] [114] El resultado de la adopción y el patrocinio de la cultura persa por los gobernantes turcos fue el desarrollo de una tradición turco-persa distinta .
De 1219 a 1221, bajo el Imperio Khwarazmian, Irán sufrió una devastadora invasión por parte del ejército del Imperio Mongol de Genghis Khan . Según Steven R. Ward, "la violencia y las depredaciones de los mongoles mataron hasta las tres cuartas partes de la población de la meseta iraní, posiblemente de 10 a 15 millones de personas. Algunos historiadores han estimado que la población de Irán no volvió a alcanzar sus niveles premongoles hasta mediados del siglo XX ". [115]
Tras la fractura del Imperio mongol en 1256, Hulagu Khan , nieto de Genghis Khan, estableció el Ilkhanate en Irán. En 1370, otro conquistador más, Timur , siguió el ejemplo de Hulagu, estableciendo el Imperio Timurid que duró otros 156 años. En 1387, Timur ordenó la masacre completa de Isfahan , matando al parecer a 70.000 ciudadanos. [116] Los ilkhans y los timurids pronto adoptaron las formas y costumbres de los iraníes, rodeándose de una cultura que era distintivamente iraní. [117]
Período moderno temprano
Safavids
En el siglo XVI, Ismail I de Ardabil estableció el Imperio Safavid , [118] con su capital en Tabriz . [112] Comenzando con Azerbaiyán , posteriormente extendió su autoridad sobre todos los territorios iraníes y estableció una hegemonía iraní intermitente sobre las vastas regiones relativas, reafirmando la identidad iraní en grandes partes del Gran Irán . [119] Irán era predominantemente sunita , [120] pero Ismail instigó una conversión forzada a la rama chiita del Islam, [121]extendiéndose por los territorios safávidas en el Cáucaso , Irán, Anatolia y Mesopotamia . Como resultado, el Irán actual es la única nación chií oficial del mundo, con una mayoría absoluta en Irán y la República de Azerbaiyán , teniendo allí el primer y segundo mayor número de habitantes chiítas por porcentaje de población en el mundo. . [122] [123] Mientras tanto, la rivalidad geopolítica e ideológica de siglos entre el Irán safávida y el vecino Imperio Otomano condujo a numerosas guerras otomano-iraníes . [115]
La era safávida alcanzó su punto máximo en el reinado de Abbas I (1587-1629), [115] [124] superando a sus archirrivales turcos en fuerza y convirtiendo a Irán en un centro de ciencia y arte líder en Eurasia occidental. La era safávida vio el comienzo de la integración masiva de las poblaciones caucásicas en nuevas capas de la sociedad de Irán, así como el reasentamiento masivo de ellos dentro del corazón de Irán, desempeñando un papel fundamental en la historia de Irán durante siglos en adelante. Tras un declive gradual a finales del siglo XVII y principios del siglo XVIII, que fue causado por conflictos internos, las continuas guerras con los otomanos y la interferencia extranjera (sobre todo la interferencia rusa), los rebeldes pastún terminaron el gobierno safávida.que sitió Isfahan y derrotó al sultán Husayn en 1722.
Afsharids
En 1729, Nader Shah , un cacique y genio militar de Khorasan , expulsó con éxito y conquistó a los invasores pastunes. Posteriormente recuperó los territorios caucásicos anexados que estaban divididos entre las autoridades otomanas y rusas por el caos en curso en Irán. Durante el reinado de Nader Shah, Irán alcanzó su mayor extensión desde el Imperio Sasánida, restableciendo la hegemonía iraní en todo el Cáucaso , así como en otras partes importantes de Asia occidental y central , y poseyendo brevemente lo que podría decirse que era el imperio más poderoso en el tiempo. [19]
Nader Shah invadió India y saqueó Delhi a fines de la década de 1730. Su expansión territorial, así como sus éxitos militares, entraron en declive después de las campañas finales en el Cáucaso del Norte contra los entonces rebeldes Lezgins . El asesinato de Nader Shah desató un breve período de guerra civil y agitación, después del cual Karim Khan de la dinastía Zand llegó al poder en 1750, trayendo un período de relativa paz y prosperidad. [115]
Zands
En comparación con sus dinastías precedentes, el alcance geopolítico de la dinastía Zand fue limitado. Muchos de los territorios iraníes en el Cáucaso obtuvieron autonomía de facto y fueron gobernados localmente a través de varios kanatos caucásicos . Sin embargo, a pesar del autogobierno, todos siguieron siendo súbditos y vasallos del rey Zand. [125] Se produjo otra guerra civil después de la muerte de Karim Khan en 1779, de la cual surgió Agha Mohammad Khan , que fundó la dinastía Qajar en 1794.
Qajars
En 1795, tras la desobediencia de los súbditos georgianos y su alianza con los rusos , los Qajar capturaron Tbilisi en la Batalla de Krtsanisi y expulsaron a los rusos de todo el Cáucaso, restableciendo la soberanía iraní sobre la región.
Las guerras ruso-iraníes de 1804-1813 y 1826-1828 resultaron en grandes pérdidas territoriales irrevocables para Irán en el Cáucaso, que comprende toda Transcaucasia y Daguestán , que formó parte del concepto mismo de Irán durante siglos, [20] y por lo tanto sustancial ganancias para el vecino Imperio Ruso.
Como resultado de las guerras ruso-iraníes del siglo XIX, los rusos tomaron el control del Cáucaso e Irán perdió irrevocablemente el control sobre sus territorios integrales en la región (que comprende lo que hoy es Daguestán, Georgia , Armenia y la República de Azerbaiyán ), que fue confirmado por los tratados de Gulistan y Turkmenchay . [21] [126] El área al norte del río Aras , entre la que se encuentran la actual República de Azerbaiyán, el este de Georgia, Daguestán y Armenia, era territorio iraní hasta que fue ocupada por Rusia en el transcurso del siglo XIX. [21] [127] [128] [129] [130][131] [132]
A medida que Irán se encogió, muchos musulmanes transcaucásicos y del norte del Cáucaso se trasladaron hacia Irán, [133] [134] especialmente hasta las secuelas del genocidio circasiano , [134] y las décadas posteriores, mientras que los armenios de Irán fueron alentados a establecerse en los territorios rusos recién incorporados. , [135] [136] [137] provocando cambios demográficos significativos.
Alrededor de 1,5 millones de personas, del 20 al 25% de la población de Irán, murieron como resultado de la Gran Hambruna de 1870-1871 . [138]
Entre 1872 y 1905, se produjeron una serie de protestas en respuesta a la venta de concesiones a extranjeros por parte de los monarcas Qajar Naser-ed-Din y Mozaffar-ed-Din , y condujeron a la Revolución Constitucional en 1905. La primera constitución iraní y la El primer parlamento nacional de Irán se fundó en 1906, a través de la revolución en curso. La Constitución incluía el reconocimiento oficial de las tres minorías religiosas de Irán, a saber, cristianos , judíos y zoroastrianos , [139] que ha seguido siendo una base en la legislación de Irán desde entonces. La lucha relacionada con el movimiento constitucional fue seguida por laTriunfo de Teherán en 1909, cuando Mohammad Ali Shah fue derrotado y obligado a abdicar. Con el pretexto de restaurar el orden, los rusos ocuparon el norte de Irán en 1911 y mantuvieron una presencia militar en la región durante los años venideros. Pero esto no puso fin a las revueltas civiles y pronto fue seguido por Mirza Kuchik Khan 's Movimiento Jungle tanto contra la monarquía Qajar y los invasores extraños.
A pesar de la neutralidad de Irán durante la Primera Guerra Mundial , los imperios otomano , ruso y británico ocuparon el territorio del oeste de Irán y combatieron la Campaña persa antes de retirar completamente sus fuerzas en 1921. Al menos 2 millones de civiles persas murieron directamente en los combates, los otomanos perpetraron genocidios anticristianos o la hambruna inducida por la guerra de 1917-1919 . Un gran número de cristianos asirios e iraníes armenios iraníes , así como los musulmanes que intentaron protegerlos, fueron víctimas de asesinatos en masa cometidos por las tropas invasoras otomanas , especialmente en los alrededores deKhoy , Maku , Salmas y Urmia . [140] [141] [142] [143] [144]
Aparte del gobierno de Agha Mohammad Khan, el gobierno de Qajar se caracteriza por ser un siglo de desgobierno. [112] La incapacidad del gobierno de Qajar Irán para mantener la soberanía del país durante e inmediatamente después de la Primera Guerra Mundial llevó al golpe de Estado persa dirigido por los británicos en 1921 y al establecimiento de la dinastía Pahlavi por parte de Reza Shah . Reza Shah, se convirtió en el nuevo primer ministro de Irán y fue declarado nuevo monarca en 1925.
Dinastía Pahlavi
En medio de la Segunda Guerra Mundial , en junio de 1941, la Alemania nazi rompió el Pacto Molotov-Ribbentrop e invadió la Unión Soviética , el vecino del norte de Irán. Los soviéticos se aliaron rápidamente con los países aliados y en julio y agosto de 1941 los británicos exigieron que el gobierno iraní expulsara a todos los alemanes de Irán. Reza Shah se negó a expulsar a los alemanes y el 25 de agosto de 1941, los británicos y los soviéticos lanzaron una invasión sorpresa y el gobierno de Reza Shah se rindió rápidamente. [145] El propósito estratégico de la invasión era asegurar una línea de suministro a la URSS (más tarde llamado el Corredor Persa), asegurar los campos petroleros y la refinería de Abadan (de la Anglo-Iranian Oil Company , propiedad del Reino Unido ), evitar un avance alemán a través de Turquía o la URSS en los campos petroleros de Bakú y limitar la influencia alemana en Irán. Tras la invasión, el 16 de septiembre de 1941, Reza Shah abdicó y fue reemplazado por Mohammad Reza Pahlavi , su hijo de 21 años. [146] [147] [148]
Durante el resto de la Segunda Guerra Mundial, Irán se convirtió en un importante conducto de ayuda británica y estadounidense a la Unión Soviética y una avenida a través de la cual más de 120.000 refugiados polacos y las Fuerzas Armadas polacas huyeron del avance del Eje. [149] En la Conferencia de Teherán de 1943 , los "Tres Grandes" Aliados - Joseph Stalin , Franklin D. Roosevelt y Winston Churchill - emitieron la Declaración de Teherán para garantizar la independencia y las fronteras de Irán en la posguerra. Sin embargo, al final de la guerra, las tropas soviéticas permanecieron en Irán y establecieron dos estados títeres en el noroeste de Irán, a saber, elGobierno Popular de Azerbaiyán y República de Mahabad . Esto condujo a la crisis de Irán de 1946 , uno de los primeros enfrentamientos de la Guerra Fría , que terminó después de que se prometieron concesiones petroleras a la URSS y las fuerzas soviéticas se retiraron de Irán en mayo de 1946. Los dos estados títeres pronto fueron derrocados y el petróleo las concesiones fueron posteriormente revocadas. [150] [151]
1951-1978: Mosaddegh, Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi
En 1951, Mohammad Mosaddegh fue nombrado Primer Ministro . Se hizo enormemente popular en Irán después de que nacionalizó la industria petrolera y las reservas de petróleo de Irán . Fue depuesto en el golpe de Estado iraní de 1953 , una operación encubierta angloamericana que marcó la primera vez que Estados Unidos participó en el derrocamiento de un gobierno extranjero durante la Guerra Fría . [152]
Después del golpe, el Shah se volvió cada vez más autocrático y sultanista , e Irán entró en una fase de controvertidas y estrechas relaciones de décadas con Estados Unidos y algunos otros gobiernos extranjeros. [153] Mientras que el Shah modernizó cada vez más Irán y afirmó retenerlo como un estado completamente secular , [22] arrestos arbitrarios y torturas por su policía secreta, la SAVAK , se utilizaron para aplastar todas las formas de oposición política. [154]
Ruhollah Khomeini , un clérigo musulmán radical, [ cita requerida ] se convirtió en un crítico activo de la serie de reformas de largo alcance del Shah conocida como la Revolución Blanca . Jomeini denunció públicamente al gobierno y fue arrestado y encarcelado durante 18 meses. Después de su liberación en 1964, se negó a disculparse y finalmente fue enviado al exilio.
Debido al aumento repentino de los precios del petróleo en 1973 , la economía de Irán se inundó de divisas, lo que provocó inflación . Para 1974, la economía de Irán estaba experimentando una inflación de dos dígitos y, a pesar de los muchos grandes proyectos para modernizar el país, la corrupción era desenfrenada y causaba grandes cantidades de desperdicio . En 1975 y 1976, una recesión económica provocó un aumento del desempleo, especialmente entre millones de jóvenes que habían emigrado a las ciudades de Irán en busca de trabajos de construcción durante los años de auge de principios de la década de 1970. A fines de la década de 1970, muchas de estas personas se opusieron al régimen del Sha y comenzaron a organizarse y unirse a las protestas en su contra. [155]
Desde la Revolución Islámica de 1979
La Revolución de 1979 , más tarde conocida como Revolución Islámica , [156] [157] [158] comenzó en enero de 1978 con las primeras manifestaciones importantes contra el Sha. [159] Después de un año de huelgas y manifestaciones que paralizaron el país y su economía, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi huyó a los Estados Unidos y Ruhollah Khomeini regresó del exilio a Teherán en febrero de 1979, formando un nuevo gobierno. [160] Después de celebrar un referéndum , Irán se convirtió oficialmente en una república islámica en abril de 1979. [161] Un segundo referéndumen diciembre de 1979 aprobó una constitución teocrática . [162]
Los levantamientos inmediatos a nivel nacional contra el nuevo gobierno comenzaron con la rebelión kurda de 1979 y los levantamientos de Juzestán , junto con los levantamientos en Sistán y Baluchistán y otras áreas. Durante los siguientes años, estos levantamientos fueron reprimidos de manera violenta por el nuevo gobierno islámico. El nuevo gobierno comenzó a depurarse de la oposición política no islamista , así como de aquellos islamistas que no eran considerados lo suficientemente radicales. Aunque tanto los nacionalistas como los marxistas se habían unido inicialmente a los islamistas para derrocar al Sha, el nuevo régimen ejecutó posteriormente a decenas de miles. [163]Muchos ex ministros y funcionarios del gobierno del Sha, incluido el ex primer ministro Amir-Abbas Hoveyda , fueron ejecutados siguiendo la orden de Jomeini de purgar el nuevo gobierno de los funcionarios restantes que aún le eran leales al Sha exiliado.
El 4 de noviembre de 1979, un grupo de estudiantes musulmanes se apoderó de la embajada de Estados Unidos y tomó como rehenes a 52 miembros del personal y ciudadanos , [164] después de que Estados Unidos se negara a extraditar a Mohammad Reza Pahlavi a Irán, donde su ejecución estaba casi asegurada. Los intentos de la administración de Jimmy Carter de negociar la liberación de los rehenes y un intento fallido de rescate ayudaron a que Carter abandonara el cargo y llevaron a Ronald Reagan al poder. En el último día en el cargo de Jimmy Carter, los últimos rehenes fueron finalmente puestos en libertad como resultado de los Acuerdos de Argel.. Mohammad Reza Pahlavi se fue de Estados Unidos a Egipto, donde murió de complicaciones de cáncer solo unos meses después, el 27 de julio de 1980.
La Revolución Cultural se inició en 1980, con un cierre inicial de universidades por tres años, con el fin de realizar una fiscalización y saneamiento en la política cultural del sistema educativo y formativo. [165]
El 22 de septiembre de 1980, el ejército iraquí invadió la provincia occidental iraní de Juzestán , iniciando la guerra entre Irán e Irak . Aunque las fuerzas de Saddam Hussein lograron varios avances iniciales, a mediados de 1982, las fuerzas iraníes lograron hacer retroceder al ejército iraquí a Irak. En julio de 1982, con Irak puesto a la defensiva, el régimen de Irán tomó la decisión de invadir Irak y llevó a cabo innumerables ofensivas en un intento por conquistar territorio iraquí y capturar ciudades, como Basora. La guerra continuó hasta 1988 cuando el ejército iraquí derrotó a las fuerzas iraníes dentro de Irak y empujó a las tropas iraníes restantes al otro lado de la frontera. Posteriormente, Jomeini aceptó una tregua mediada por Naciones Unidas. El total de bajas iraníes en la guerra se estimó en 123.220-160.000 KIA , 60.711 MIA y 11.000-16.000 civiles muertos . [166] [167]
Después de la guerra Irán-Irak, en 1989, Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani y su administración se concentraron en una política pragmática a favor de las empresas de reconstrucción y fortalecimiento de la economía sin romper dramáticamente con la ideología de la revolución. En 1997, Rafsanjani fue reemplazado por el reformista moderado Mohammad Khatami , cuyo gobierno intentó, sin éxito, hacer que el país fuera más libre y democrático. [168]
Las elecciones presidenciales de 2005 llevaron al poder al candidato populista conservador Mahmoud Ahmadinejad . [169] En el momento de las elecciones presidenciales iraníes de 2009 , el Ministerio del Interior anunció que el actual presidente Ahmadinejad había ganado el 62,63% de los votos, mientras que Mir-Hossein Mousavi había quedado en segundo lugar con un 33,75%. [170] [171] Los resultados de las elecciones fueron ampliamente controvertidos, [172] [173] y dieron lugar a protestas generalizadas , tanto dentro de Irán como en las principales ciudades fuera del país, [174] [175] y la creación de laMovimiento Verde Iraní .
Hassan Rouhani fue elegido presidente el 15 de junio de 2013, derrotando a Mohammad Bagher Ghalibaf y otros cuatro candidatos. [176] [177] La victoria electoral de Rouhani mejoró relativamente las relaciones de Irán con otros países. [178]
Las protestas iraníes de 2017-18 se extendieron por todo el país contra el gobierno y su Líder Supremo desde hace mucho tiempo en respuesta a la situación económica y política. [179] La magnitud de las protestas en todo el país y el número de personas que participaron fueron importantes, [180] y se confirmó formalmente que miles de manifestantes fueron arrestados. [181] Las protestas iraníes de 2019-2020 comenzaron el 15 de noviembre en Ahvaz y se extendieron por todo el país en cuestión de horas, después de que el gobierno anunciara aumentos en el precio del combustible de hasta un 300%. [182] Un cierre total de Internet durante una semanaen todo el país marcó uno de los apagones de Internet más severos en cualquier país, y en la represión gubernamental más sangrienta de los manifestantes en la historia de la República Islámica, [183] decenas de miles fueron arrestados y cientos fueron asesinados en pocos días según múltiples observadores internacionales, incluida Amnistía Internacional . [184]
El 3 de enero de 2020, el general de la guardia revolucionaria, Qasem Soleimani , fue asesinado por Estados Unidos en Irak , lo que aumentó considerablemente las tensiones existentes entre los dos países . [185] Tres días después, el Cuerpo de la Guardia Revolucionaria Islámica de Irán lanzó un ataque de represalia contra las fuerzas estadounidenses en Irak y derribó el vuelo 752 de Ukraine International Airlines , matando a 176 civiles y provocando protestas en todo el país . Una investigación internacional llevó al gobierno a admitir el derribo del avión por un misil tierra-aire después de tres días de negación, calificándolo de "error humano". [186][187]
Geografía
Irán tiene un área de 1,648,195 km 2 (636,372 millas cuadradas). [3] Se encuentra entre las latitudes 24 ° y 40 ° N y longitudes 44 ° y 64 ° E . Limita al noroeste con Armenia (35 km o 22 millas), el enclave azerí de Nakhchivan (179 km o 111 millas), [188] y la República de Azerbaiyán (611 km o 380 millas); al norte por el Mar Caspio ; al noreste con Turkmenistán (992 km o 616 millas); al este con Afganistán (936 km o 582 millas) y Pakistán (909 km o 565 millas); al sur por elGolfo Pérsico y Golfo de Omán ; y al oeste con Irak (1.458 km o 906 millas) y Turquía (499 km o 310 millas).
Irán está formado por la meseta iraní , con la excepción de las costas del mar Caspio y Juzestán . Es uno de los países más montañosos del mundo, su paisaje dominado por escarpadas cadenas montañosas que separan varias cuencas o mesetas entre sí. La populosa parte occidental es la más montañosa, con cordilleras como el Cáucaso , Zagros y Alborz , la última que contiene el monte Damavand , el punto más alto de Irán a 5.610 m (18.406 pies), que también es la montaña más alta de Asia al oeste de los hindúes. Kush .
La parte norte de Irán está cubierta por los frondosos bosques mixtos del Caspio Hyrcanian de las tierras bajas , ubicados cerca de la costa sur del Mar Caspio. La parte oriental se compone principalmente de cuencas desérticas , como el desierto de Kavir , que es el desierto más grande del país, y el desierto de Lut , así como algunos lagos salados . Irán obtuvo una puntuación media del Índice de Integridad del Paisaje Forestal de 2019 de 7,67 / 10, ubicándose en el puesto 34 a nivel mundial de 172 países. [189]
Las únicas grandes llanuras se encuentran a lo largo de la costa del Mar Caspio y en el extremo norte del Golfo Pérsico, donde el país limita con la desembocadura del río Arvand . Las llanuras discontinuas más pequeñas se encuentran a lo largo de la costa restante del Golfo Pérsico, el Estrecho de Ormuz y el Golfo de Omán.
Clima
Clima caluroso del desierto Clima frío del desierto Clima cálido semiárido Clima semiárido frío Clima mediterráneo de verano caluroso Clima mediterráneo continental |
Con 11 climas de los 13 del mundo, el clima de Irán es diverso, [190] que va desde árido y semiárido , hasta subtropical a lo largo de la costa del Caspio y los bosques del norte. [191] En el extremo norte del país (la llanura costera del Caspio), las temperaturas rara vez descienden por debajo del punto de congelación y el área permanece húmeda durante el resto del año. Las temperaturas de verano rara vez superan los 29 ° C (84,2 ° F). [192] [193]La precipitación anual es de 680 mm (26,8 pulgadas) en la parte oriental de la llanura y más de 1.700 mm (66,9 pulgadas) en la parte occidental. Gary Lewis, el Coordinador Residente de las Naciones Unidas para Irán, ha dicho que "la escasez de agua plantea el desafío de seguridad humana más grave en Irán en la actualidad". [194]
Al oeste, los asentamientos en la cuenca de Zagros experimentan temperaturas más bajas, inviernos severos con temperaturas diarias promedio por debajo de cero y fuertes nevadas. Las cuencas oriental y central son áridas, con menos de 200 mm (7,9 pulgadas) de lluvia y tienen desiertos ocasionales. [195] Las temperaturas medias de verano rara vez superan los 38 ° C (100,4 ° F). [192] Las llanuras costeras del Golfo Pérsico y el Golfo de Omán en el sur de Irán tienen inviernos suaves y veranos muy húmedos y calurosos. La precipitación anual varía de 135 a 355 mm (5,3 a 14,0 pulgadas). [192]
A pesar del cambio climático en la región, Irán es uno de los pocos países del mundo que no ha ratificado el Acuerdo de París . [196]
Fauna
La vida silvestre de Irán está compuesta por varias especies animales, incluidos osos , linces euroasiáticos , zorros , gacelas , lobos grises , chacales , panteras y cerdos salvajes . [197] [198] Otros animales domésticos de Irán incluyen búfalos de agua asiáticos , camellos , ganado , burros , cabras , caballos y ovejas . Águilas , halcones , perdices , faisanes, y las cigüeñas también son nativas de la vida silvestre de Irán.
Uno de los miembros más famosos de la vida silvestre iraní es el guepardo asiático en peligro crítico de extinción , también conocido como guepardo iraní , cuyo número se redujo considerablemente después de la Revolución de 1979. [199] El leopardo persa , que es la subespecie de leopardo más grande del mundo que vive principalmente en el norte de Irán, también figura como una especie en peligro de extinción. [200] Irán perdió todos sus leones asiáticos y los ahora extintos tigres del Caspio a principios del siglo XX. [201]
Al menos 74 especies de la vida silvestre iraní están en la lista roja de la Unión Internacional para la Conservación de la Naturaleza , una señal de serias amenazas contra la biodiversidad del país. El Parlamento iraní ha mostrado desprecio por la vida silvestre al aprobar leyes y reglamentos como la ley que permite al Ministerio de Industrias y Minas explotar minas sin la participación del Departamento de Medio Ambiente , y al aprobar grandes proyectos de desarrollo nacional sin exigir un estudio integral de su impacto en los hábitats de la vida silvestre. [202]
divisiones administrativas
Alborz Ardabil Bushehr Chaharmahaland Bakhtiari Isfahan Fars Gilan Golestan Hamadan Hormozgan Ilam Kerman Kermanshah Khuzestan Kohgiluyeh andBoyer-Ahmad Kurdistan Luristan Markazi Mazandaran Qazvin Qom RazaviKhorasan Semnan Sistan andBaluchestan Tehran Yazd Zanjan NorthKhorasan SouthKhorasan WestAzerbaijan EastAzerbaijan Caspian Sea Persian Gulf Turkmenistan Afghanistan Pakistan Azerbaijan Armenia Turkey Iraq Kuwait Saudi Arabia |
Iran is divided into five regions with thirty-one provinces (ostān),[203] each governed by an appointed governor (ostāndār). The provinces are divided into counties (šahrestān), and subdivided into districts (baxš) and sub-districts (dehestān).
The country has one of the highest urban growth rates in the world. From 1950 to 2002, the urban proportion of the population increased from 27% to 60%.[204] The United Nations predicts that by 2030, 80% of the population will be urban.[205][failed verification] Most internal migrants have settled around the cities of Tehran, Isfahan, Ahvaz, and Qom. The listed populations are from the 2006/07 (1385 AP) census.[206][failed verification]
Tehran, with a population of around 8.8 million (2016 census), is the capital and largest city of Iran. It is an economical and cultural center, and is the hub of the country's communication and transport network.
The country's second most populous city, Mashhad, has a population of around 3.3 million (2016 census), and is capital of the province of Razavi Khorasan. Being the site of the Imam Reza Shrine, it is a holy city in Shia Islam. About 15 to 20 million pilgrims visit the shrine every year.[207][208]
Isfahan has a population of around 2.2 million (2016 census), and is Iran's third most populous city. It is the capital of the province of Isfahan, and was also the third capital of the Safavid Empire. It is home to a wide variety of historical sites, including the famous Shah Square, Siosepol, and the churches at the Armenian district of New Julfa. It is also home to the world's seventh largest shopping mall, Isfahan City Center.
The fourth most populous city of Iran, Karaj, has a population of around 1.9 million (2016 census). It is the capital of the province of Alborz, and is situated 20 km west of Tehran, at the foot of the Alborz mountain range. It is a major industrial city in Iran, with large factories producing sugar, textiles, wire, and alcohol.
With a population of around 1.7 million (2016 census), Tabriz is the fifth most populous city of Iran, and had been the second most populous until the late 1960s. It was the first capital of the Safavid Empire, and is now the capital of the province of East Azerbaijan. It is also considered the country's second major industrial city (after Tehran).
Shiraz, with a population of around 1.8 million (2016 census), is Iran's sixth most populous city. It is the capital of the province of Fars, and was also the capital of Iran under the reign of the Zand dynasty. It is located near the ruins of Persepolis and Pasargadae, two of the four capitals of the Achaemenid Empire.
| vte Largest cities or towns in Iran2016 census | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Rank | Name | Province | Pop. | Rank | Name | Province | Pop. | ||
Tehran Mashhad | 1 | Tehran | Tehran | 8,693,706 | 11 | Rasht | Gilan | 679,995 | Isfahan Karaj |
| 2 | Mashhad | Razavi Khorasan | 3,001,184 | 12 | Zahedan | Sistan and Baluchestan | 587,730 | ||
| 3 | Isfahan | Isfahan | 1,961,260 | 13 | Hamadan | Hamadan | 554,406 | ||
| 4 | Karaj | Alborz | 1,592,492 | 14 | Kerman | Kerman | 537,718 | ||
| 5 | Shiraz | Fars | 1,565,572 | 15 | Yazd | Yazd | 529,673 | ||
| 6 | Tabriz | East Azarbaijan | 1,558,693 | 16 | Ardabil | Ardabil | 529,374 | ||
| 7 | Qom | Qom | 1,201,158 | 17 | Bandar Abbas | Hormozgan | 526,648 | ||
| 8 | Ahvaz | Khuzestan | 1,184,788 | 18 | Arak | Markazi | 520,944 | ||
| 9 | Kermanshah | Kermanshah | 946,651 | 19 | Eslamshahr | Tehran | 448,129 | ||
| 10 | Urmia | West Azarbaijan | 736,224 | 20 | Zanjan | Zanjan | 430,871 |
Government and politics
The political system of the Islamic Republic is based on the 1979 Constitution.[209]
Supreme Leader
The Leader of the Revolution ("Supreme Leader") is responsible for delineation and supervision of the policies of the Islamic Republic of Iran.[212] The Iranian president has limited power compared to the Supreme Leader Khamenei.[213] The current longtime Supreme Leader, Ali Khamenei, has been issuing decrees and making the final decisions on the economy, environment, foreign policy, education, national planning, and everything else in the country.[214][215][216][217][218][219][220][221] Khamenei also outlines elections guidelines and urges for the transparency,[222] and has fired and reinstated presidential cabinet appointments.[223][224] Key ministers are selected with the Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei's agreement and he has the ultimate say on Iran's foreign policy.[213] The president-elect is required to gain the Leader Khamenei's official approval before being sworn in before the Parliament (Majlis). Through this process, known as Tanfiz (validation), the Leader agrees to the outcome of the presidential election.[citation needed] The Supreme Leader is directly involved in ministerial appointments for Defense, Intelligence and Foreign Affairs, as well as other top ministries after submission of candidates from the president.[225] Iran's regional policy is directly controlled by the office of the Supreme Leader with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs' task limited to protocol and ceremonial occasions. All of Iran's ambassadors to Arab countries, for example, are chosen by the Quds Corps, which directly reports to the Supreme Leader.[214] The budget bill for every year, as well as withdrawing money from the National Development Fund of Iran, require Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei's approval and permission.[citation needed] The Supreme Leader Khamenei can and did order laws to be amended.[226] Setad, estimated at $95 billion in 2013 by the Reuters, accounts of which are secret even to the Iranian parliament,[227][228] is controlled only by the Supreme Leader.[229][230]
The Supreme Leader is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces, controls the military intelligence and security operations, and has sole power to declare war or peace.[212] The heads of the judiciary, the state radio and television networks, the commanders of the police and military forces, and six of the twelve members of the Guardian Council are directly appointed by the Supreme Leader.[212]
The Assembly of Experts is responsible for electing the Supreme Leader, and has the power to dismiss him on the basis of qualifications and popular esteem.[231] To date, the Assembly of Experts has not challenged any of the Supreme Leader's decisions, nor has it attempted to dismiss him.[232] The previous head of the judicial system, Sadeq Larijani, appointed by the Supreme Leader, said that it is illegal for the Assembly of Experts to supervise the Supreme Leader.[233] Due to Khamenei's very longtime unchallenged rule, many believe the Assembly of Experts has become a ceremonial body without any real power.[234][235][236][237] There have been instances when the current Supreme Leader publicly criticized members of the Assembly of Experts, resulting in their arrest and dismissal. For example, Khamenei publicly called then-member of the Assembly of Experts Ahmad Azari Qomi a traitor, resulting in Qomi's arrest and eventual dismissal from the Assembly of Experts. Another instance is when Khamenei indirectly called Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani a traitor for a statement he made, causing Rafsanjani to retract it.[238]
Guardian Council
Presidential candidates and parliamentary candidates must be approved by the Guardian Council (all members of which are directly or indirectly appointed by the Leader) or the Leader before running, in order to ensure their allegiance to the Supreme Leader.[239] The Leader very rarely does the vetting himself directly, but has the power to do so, in which case additional approval of the Guardian Council would not be needed. The Leader can also revert the decisions of the Guardian Council.[240] The Guardian Council can, and has dismissed some elected members of the Iranian parliament in the past.[241] For example, Minoo Khaleghi was disqualified by Guardian Council even after winning election, as she had been photographed in a meeting without wearing headscarf.[242]
President
After the Supreme Leader, the Constitution defines the President of Iran as the highest state authority.[212][246] The President is elected by universal suffrage for a term of four years, however, the president is still required to gain the Leader's official approval before being sworn in before the Parliament (Majlis). The Leader also has the power to dismiss the elected president anytime.[citation needed] The President can only be re-elected for one term.[246]
The President is responsible for the implementation of the constitution, and for the exercise of executive powers in implementing the decrees and general policies as outlined by the Supreme Leader, except for matters directly related to the Supreme Leader, who has the final say in all matters.[212] Unlike the executive in other countries, the President of Iran does not have full control over anything, as these are ultimately under the control of the Supreme Leader.[209] Chapter IX of the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran sets forth the qualifications for presidential candidates. The procedures for presidential election and all other elections in Iran are outlined by the Supreme Leader.[222][247] The President functions as the executive of affairs such as signing treaties and other international agreements, and administering national planning, budget, and state employment affairs, all as approved by the Supreme Leader.[215][216][247][217][218][219][220][248]
The President appoints the ministers, subject to the approval of the Parliament, as well as the approval of the Supreme Leader, who can dismiss or reinstate any of the ministers at any time, regardless of the decisions made by the President or the Parliament.[223][224][249] The President supervises the Council of Ministers, coordinates government decisions, and selects government policies to be placed before the legislature.[250] The current Supreme Leader, Ali Khamenei, has fired as well as reinstated Council of Ministers members.[251][252] Eight Vice Presidents serve under the President, as well as a cabinet of twenty-two ministers, who must all be approved by the legislature.[253]
Legislature
The legislature of Iran, known as the Islamic Consultative Assembly, is a unicameral body comprising 290 members elected for four-year terms.[254] It drafts legislation, ratifies international treaties, and approves the national budget. All parliamentary candidates and all legislation from the assembly must be approved by the Guardian Council.[255]
The Guardian Council comprises twelve jurists, including six appointed by the Supreme Leader. Others are elected by the Parliament, from among the jurists nominated by the Head of the Judiciary.[256][257] The Council interprets the constitution and may veto the Parliament. If a law is deemed incompatible with the constitution or Sharia (Islamic law), it is referred back to the Parliament for revision.[246] The Expediency Council has the authority to mediate disputes between the Parliament and the Guardian Council, and serves as an advisory body to the Supreme Leader, making it one of the most powerful governing bodies in the country.[258] Local city councils are elected by public vote to four-year terms in all cities and villages of Iran.
Law
The Supreme Leader appoints the head of the country's judiciary, who in turn appoints the head of the Supreme Court and the chief public prosecutor.[232] There are several types of courts, including public courts that deal with civil and criminal cases, and revolutionary courts which deal with certain categories of offenses, such as crimes against national security. The decisions of the revolutionary courts are final and cannot be appealed.[232]
The Special Clerical Court handles crimes allegedly committed by clerics, although it has also taken on cases involving laypeople. The Special Clerical Court functions independently of the regular judicial framework, and is accountable only to the Supreme Leader. The Court's rulings are final and cannot be appealed.[232] The Assembly of Experts, which meets for one week annually, comprises 86 "virtuous and learned" clerics elected by adult suffrage for eight-year terms.
Foreign relations
Since the time of the 1979 Revolution, Iran's foreign relations have often been portrayed as being based on two strategic principles; eliminating outside influences in the region, and pursuing extensive diplomatic contacts with developing and non-aligned countries.[259]
Since 2005, Iran's nuclear program has become the subject of contention with the international community, mainly the United States. Many countries have expressed concern that Iran's nuclear program could divert civilian nuclear technology into a weapons program. This has led the United Nations Security Council to impose sanctions against Iran which had further isolated Iran politically and economically from the rest of the global community. In 2009, the U.S. Director of National Intelligence said that Iran, if choosing to, would not be able to develop a nuclear weapon until 2013.[260]
As of 2009[update], the government of Iran maintains diplomatic relations with 99 members of the United Nations,[261] but not with the United States, and not with Israel—a state which Iran's government has derecognized since the 1979 Revolution.[262] Among Muslim nations, Iran has an adversarial relationship with Saudi Arabia due to different political and Islamic ideologies. While Iran is a Shia Islamic Republic, Saudi Arabia is a conservative Sunni monarchy.[263] Regarding the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, the government of Iran has recognized Jerusalem as the capital of the State of Palestine, after Trump recognized Jerusalem as the capital of Israel.[264][265][266]
Since the 2000s, Iran's controversial nuclear program has raised concerns, which is part of the basis of the international sanctions against the country. On 14 July 2015, Tehran and the P5+1 came to a historic agreement (Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action) to end economic sanctions in exchange for Iran's restriction in producing enriched uranium after demonstrating a peaceful nuclear research project that would meet the International Atomic Energy Agency standards.[267]
Iran is a member of dozens of international organizations, including the G-15, G-24, G-77, IAEA, IBRD, IDA, IDB, IFC, ILO, IMF, IMO, Interpol, OIC, OPEC,[268] WHO, and the United Nations, and currently has observer status at the World Trade Organization.
Military
The Islamic Republic of Iran has two types of armed forces: the regular forces of the Army, the Air Force, and the Navy, and the Revolutionary Guards, totaling about 545,000 active troops. Iran also has around 350,000 Reserve Force, totaling around 900,000 trained troops.[269]
The government of Iran has a paramilitary, volunteer militia force within the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps, called the Basij, which includes about 90,000 full-time, active-duty uniformed members. Up to 11 million men and women are members of the Basij who could potentially be called up for service. GlobalSecurity.org estimates Iran could mobilize "up to one million men", which would be among the largest troop mobilizations in the world.[270] In 2007, Iran's military spending represented 2.6% of the GDP or $102 per capita, the lowest figure of the Persian Gulf nations.[271] Iran's military doctrine is based on deterrence.[272] In 2014, the country spent $15 billion on arms, while the states of the Gulf Cooperation Council spent eight times more.[273]
The government of Iran supports the military activities of its allies in Syria, Iraq, and Lebanon (Hezbollah) with military and financial aid.[274] Iran and Syria are close strategic allies, and Iran has provided significant support for the Syrian Government in the Syrian Civil War.[275] According to some estimates, Iran controlled over 80,000 pro-Assad Shi'ite fighters in Syria.[275][276]
Since the 1979 Revolution, to overcome foreign embargoes, the government of Iran has developed its own military industry, produced its own tanks, armored personnel carriers, missiles, submarines, military vessels, missile destroyer, radar systems, helicopters, and fighter planes.[277] In recent years, official announcements have highlighted the development of weapons such as the Hoot, Kowsar, Zelzal, Fateh-110, Shahab-3, Sejjil, and a variety of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs).[278] Iran has the largest and most diverse ballistic missile arsenal in the Middle East.[279] The Fajr-3, a liquid fuel missile with an undisclosed range which was developed and produced domestically, is currently the most advanced ballistic missile of the country.
In June 1925, Reza Shah introduced conscription law at National Consultative Majlis. At that time every male person who had reached 21 years old must serve for military for two years. The conscription exempted women from military service after 1979 revolution. Iranian constitution obliges all men of 18 years old and higher to serve in military or police bases. They cannot leave the country or be employed without completion of the service period.[280] The period varies from 18 to 24 months.
Human rights
According to international reports, Iran's human rights record is exceptionally poor. The regime in Iran is undemocratic,[281][282] has frequently persecuted and arrested critics of the government and its Supreme Leader, and severely restricts the participation of candidates in popular elections as well as other forms of political activity.[283][284] Women's rights in Iran are described as seriously inadequate,[285] and children's rights have been severely violated, with more child offenders being executed in Iran than in any other country in the world.[286][287] Sexual activity between members of the same sex is illegal and is punishable by up to death.[288][289]
Over the past decade, numbers of anti-government protests have broken out throughout Iran (such as the 2019–20 Iranian protests), demanding reforms or the end to the Islamic Republic. However, the IRGC and police often suppressed mass protests by violent means, which resulted in thousands of protesters killed.
Economy
Iran's economy is a mixture of central planning, state ownership of oil and other large enterprises, village agriculture, and small-scale private trading and service ventures.[290] In 2017, GDP was $427.7 billion ($1.631 trillion at PPP), or $20,000 at PPP per capita.[3] Iran is ranked as an upper-middle income economy by the World Bank.[291] In the early 21st century, the service sector contributed the largest percentage of the GDP, followed by industry (mining and manufacturing) and agriculture.[292]
The Central Bank of the Islamic Republic of Iran is responsible for developing and maintaining the Iranian rial, which serves as the country's currency. The government does not recognize trade unions other than the Islamic labour councils, which are subject to the approval of employers and the security services.[293] The minimum wage in June 2013 was 487 million rials a month ($134).[294] Unemployment has remained above 10% since 1997, and the unemployment rate for women is almost double that of the men.[294]
In 2006, about 45% of the government's budget came from oil and natural gas revenues, and 31% came from taxes and fees.[296] As of 2007[update], Iran had earned $70 billion in foreign-exchange reserves, mostly (80%) from crude oil exports.[297] Iranian budget deficits have been a chronic problem, mostly due to large-scale state subsidies, that include foodstuffs and especially gasoline, totaling more than $84 billion in 2008 for the energy sector alone.[298][299] In 2010, the economic reform plan was approved by parliament to cut subsidies gradually and replace them with targeted social assistance. The objective is to move towards free market prices in a five-year period and increase productivity and social justice.[300]
The administration continues to follow the market reform plans of the previous one, and indicates that it will diversify Iran's oil-reliant economy. Iran has also developed a biotechnology, nanotechnology, and pharmaceutical industry.[301] However, nationalized industries such as the bonyads have often been managed badly, making them ineffective and uncompetitive with years. Currently, the government is trying to privatize these industries, and, despite successes, there are still several problems to be overcome, such as the lagging corruption in the public sector and lack of competitiveness.
Iran has leading manufacturing industries in the fields of automobile manufacture, transportation, construction materials, home appliances, food and agricultural goods, armaments, pharmaceuticals, information technology, and petrochemicals in the Middle East.[302] According to the 2012 data from the Food and Agriculture Organization, Iran has been among the world's top five producers of apricots, cherries, sour cherries, cucumbers and gherkins, dates, eggplants, figs, pistachios, quinces, walnuts, and watermelons.[303]
Economic sanctions against Iran, such as the embargo against Iranian crude oil, have injured the economy.[304] In 2015, Iran and the P5+1 reached a deal on the nuclear program that removed the main sanctions pertaining to Iran's nuclear program by 2016.[305] According to the BBC, renewed U.S. sanctions against Iran "have led to a sharp downturn in Iran's economy, pushing the value of its currency to record lows, quadrupling its annual inflation rate, driving away foreign investors, and triggering protests."[306]
Tourism
Although tourism declined significantly during the war with Iraq, it has been subsequently recovered.[308] About 1,659,000 foreign tourists visited Iran in 2004, and 2.3 million in 2009, mostly from Asian countries, including the republics of Central Asia, while about 10% came from the European Union and North America.[309][310] Since the removal of some sanctions against Iran in 2015, tourism has re-surged in the country. Over five million tourists visited Iran in the fiscal year of 2014–2015, four percent more than the previous year.[311][312]
Alongside the capital, the most popular tourist destinations are Isfahan, Mashhad, and Shiraz.[313] In the early 2000s, the industry faced serious limitations in infrastructure, communications, industry standards, and personnel training.[314] The majority of the 300,000 travel visas granted in 2003 were obtained by Asian Muslims, who presumably intended to visit pilgrimage sites in Mashhad and Qom.[citation needed] Several organized tours from Germany, France, and other European countries come to Iran annually to visit archaeological sites and monuments. In 2003, Iran ranked 68th in tourism revenues worldwide.[315] According to the UNESCO and the deputy head of research for Iran's Tourism Organization, Iran is rated fourth among the top 10 destinations in the Middle East.[315] Domestic tourism in Iran is one of the largest in the world.[316][317][318] Weak advertising, unstable regional conditions, a poor public image in some parts of the world, and absence of efficient planning schemes in the tourism sector have all hindered the growth of tourism.
Transportation
Iran has a long paved road system linking most of its towns and all of its cities. In 2011 the country had 173,000 kilometres (107,000 mi) of roads, of which 73% were paved.[320] In 2008 there were nearly 100 passenger cars for every 1,000 inhabitants.[321]
Trains operate on 11,106 km (6,942 mi) of railroad track.[322] The country's major port of entry is Bandar-Abbas on the Strait of Hormuz. After arriving in Iran, imported goods are distributed throughout the country by trucks and freight trains. The Tehran–Bandar-Abbas railroad, opened in 1995, connects Bandar-Abbas to the railroad system of Central Asia via Tehran and Mashhad. Other major ports include Bandar e-Anzali and Bandar e-Torkeman on the Caspian Sea and Khorramshahr and Bandar-e Emam Khomeyni on the Persian Gulf.
Dozens of cities have airports that serve passenger and cargo planes. Iran Air, the national airline, was founded in 1962 and operates domestic and international flights. All large cities have mass transit systems using buses, and several private companies provide bus service between cities. Hamadan and Tehran hold the highest betweenness and closeness centrality among the cities of Iran, regarding road and air routes, respectively.[323][324]
Transport in Iran is inexpensive because of the government's subsidization of the price of gasoline. The downside is a huge draw on government coffers, economic inefficiency because of highly wasteful consumption patterns, contraband with neighboring countries and air pollution. In 2008, more than one million people worked in the transportation sector, accounting for 9% of GDP.[325]
Energy
Iran has the world's second largest proved gas reserves after Russia, with 33.6 trillion cubic metres,[327] and the third largest natural gas production after Indonesia and Russia. It also ranks fourth in oil reserves with an estimated 153,600,000,000 barrels.[328][329] It is OPEC's second largest oil exporter, and is an energy superpower.[330]In 2005, Iran spent US$4 billion on fuel imports, because of contraband and inefficient domestic use.[331] Oil industry output averaged 4 million barrels per day (640,000 m3/d) in 2005, compared with the peak of six million barrels per day reached in 1974. In the early 2000s, industry infrastructure was increasingly inefficient because of technological lags. Few exploratory wells were drilled in 2005.
In 2004, a large share of Iran's natural gas reserves were untapped. The addition of new hydroelectric stations and the streamlining of conventional coal and oil-fired stations increased installed capacity to 33,000 megawatts. Of that amount, about 75% was based on natural gas, 18% on oil, and 7% on hydroelectric power. In 2004, Iran opened its first wind-powered and geothermal plants, and the first solar thermal plant was to come online in 2009. Iran is the world's third country to have developed GTL technology.[332]
Demographic trends and intensified industrialization have caused electric power demand to grow by 8% per year. The government's goal of 53,000 megawatts of installed capacity by 2010 is to be reached by bringing on line new gas-fired plants, and adding hydropower and nuclear power generation capacity. Iran's first nuclear power plant at Bushire went online in 2011. It is the second nuclear power plant ever built in the Middle East after the Metsamor Nuclear Power Plant in Armenia.[333][334]
Education, science and technology
Education in Iran is highly centralized. K–12 is supervised by the Ministry of Education, and higher education is under the supervision of the Ministry of Science and Technology. The adult literacy rated 93.0% in September 2015,[335] while it had rated 85.0% in 2008, up from 36.5% in 1976.[336]
According to the data provided by UNESCO, Iran's literacy rate among people aged 15 years and older was 85.54% as of 2016, with men (90.35%) being significantly more educated than women (80.79%), with the number of illiterate people of the same age amounting to around 8,700,000 of the country's 85 million population.[337] According to this report, Iranian government's expenditure on education amounts to around 4% of the GDP.
The requirement to enter into higher education is to have a high school diploma and pass the Iranian University Entrance Exam (officially known as konkur (کنکور)), which is the equivalent of the SAT and ACT exams of the United States. Many students do a 1–2-year course of pre-university (piš-dānešgāh), which is the equivalent of the GCE A-levels and the International Baccalaureate. The completion of the pre-university course earns students the Pre-University Certificate.[338]
Iran's higher education is sanctioned by different levels of diplomas, including an associate degree (kārdāni; also known as fowq e diplom) delivered in two years, a bachelor's degree (kāršenāsi; also known as lisāns) delivered in four years, and a master's degree (kāršenāsi e aršad) delivered in two years, after which another exam allows the candidate to pursue a doctoral program (PhD; known as doktorā).[339]
According to the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities (as of January 2017[update]), Iran's top five universities include Tehran University of Medical Sciences (478th worldwide), the University of Tehran (514th worldwide), Sharif University of Technology (605th worldwide), Amirkabir University of Technology (726th worldwide), and the Tarbiat Modares University (789th worldwide).[340]
Iran has increased its publication output nearly tenfold from 1996 through 2004, and has been ranked first in terms of output growth rate, followed by China.[341] According to a study by SCImago in 2012, Iran would rank fourth in the world in terms of research output by 2018, if the current trend persists.[342]
In 2009, a SUSE Linux-based HPC system made by the Aerospace Research Institute of Iran (ARI) was launched with 32 cores, and now runs 96 cores. Its performance was pegged at 192 GFLOPS.[343] The Iranian humanoid robot Sorena 2, which was designed by engineers at the University of Tehran, was unveiled in 2010. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) has placed the name of Surena among the five prominent robots of the world after analyzing its performance.[344]
In the biomedical sciences, Iran's Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics has a UNESCO chair in biology.[345] In late 2006, Iranian scientists successfully cloned a sheep by somatic cell nuclear transfer, at the Royan Research Center in Tehran.[346]
According to a study by David Morrison and Ali Khadem Hosseini (Harvard-MIT and Cambridge), stem cell research in Iran is amongst the top 10 in the world.[347] Iran ranks 15th in the world in nanotechnologies.[348][349][350]
Iran placed its domestically built satellite Omid into orbit on the 30th anniversary of the 1979 Revolution, on 2 February 2009,[351] through its first expendable launch vehicle Safir, becoming the ninth country in the world capable of both producing a satellite and sending it into space from a domestically made launcher.[352]
The Iranian nuclear program was launched in the 1950s. Iran is the seventh country to produce uranium hexafluoride, and controls the entire nuclear fuel cycle.[353][354]
Iranian scientists outside Iran have also made some major contributions to science. In 1960, Ali Javan co-invented the first gas laser, and fuzzy set theory was introduced by Lotfi A. Zadeh.[355] Iranian cardiologist Tofigh Mussivand invented and developed the first artificial cardiac pump, the precursor of the artificial heart Furthering research and treatment of diabetes, the HbA1c was discovered by Samuel Rahbar. Iranian physics is especially strong in string theory, with many papers being published in Iran.[356] Iranian American string theorist Kamran Vafa proposed the Vafa–Witten theorem together with Edward Witten. In August 2014, Iranian mathematician Maryam Mirzakhani became the first woman, as well as the first Iranian, to receive the Fields Medal, the highest prize in mathematics.[357]
Demographics
Iran is a diverse country, consisting of numerous ethnic and linguistic groups that are unified through a shared Iranian nationality.[358]
Iran's population grew rapidly during the latter half of the 20th century, increasing from about 19 million in 1956 to more than 84 million by July 2020.[359][360] However, Iran's fertility rate has dropped significantly in recent years, coming down from a fertility rate of 6.5 per woman to less than 2 just two decades later,[361][362] leading to a population growth rate of about 1.39% as of 2018.[363] Due to its young population, studies project that the growth will continue to slow until it stabilizes around 105 million by 2050.[364][365][366]
Iran hosts one of the largest refugee populations in the world, with almost one million refugees,[367] mostly from Afghanistan and Iraq.[368] Since 2006, Iranian officials have been working with the UNHCR and Afghan officials for their repatriation.[369] According to estimates, about five million Iranian citizens have emigrated to other countries, mostly since the 1979 Revolution.[370][371]
According to the Iranian Constitution, the government is required to provide every citizen of the country with access to social security, covering retirement, unemployment, old age, disability, accidents, calamities, health and medical treatment and care services.[372] This is covered by tax revenues and income derived from public contributions.[373]
Languages
The majority of the population speak Persian, which is also the official language of the country. Others include speakers of a number of other Iranian languages within the greater Indo-European family, and languages belonging to some other ethnicities living in Iran.
In northern Iran, mostly confined to Gilan and Mazenderan, the Gilaki and Mazenderani languages are widely spoken, both having affinities to the neighboring Caucasian languages. In parts of Gilan, the Talysh language is also widely spoken, which stretches up to the neighboring Republic of Azerbaijan. Varieties of Kurdish are widely spoken in the province of Kurdistan and nearby areas. In Khuzestan, several distinct varieties of Persian are spoken. Luri and Lari are also spoken in southern Iran.
Azerbaijani, which is by far the most spoken language in the country after Persian,[374] as well as a number of other Turkic languages and dialects, is spoken in various regions of Iran, especially in the region of Azerbaijan.
Notable minority languages in Iran include Armenian, Georgian, Neo-Aramaic, and Arabic. Khuzi Arabic is spoken by the Arabs in Khuzestan, as well as the wider group of Iranian Arabs. Circassian was also once widely spoken by the large Circassian minority, but, due to assimilation over the many years, no sizable number of Circassians speak the language anymore.[375][376][377][378]
Percentages of spoken language continue to be a point of debate, as many opt that they are politically motivated; most notably regarding the largest and second largest ethnicities in Iran, the Persians and Azerbaijanis. Percentages given by the CIA's World Factbook include 53% Persian, 16% Azerbaijani, 10% Kurdish, 7% Mazenderani and Gilaki, 7% Luri, 2% Turkmen, 2% Balochi, 2% Arabic, and 2% the remainder Armenian, Georgian, Neo-Aramaic, and Circassian.[3]
Ethnic groups
As with the spoken languages, the ethnic group composition also remains a point of debate, mainly regarding the largest and second largest ethnic groups, the Persians and Azerbaijanis, due to the lack of Iranian state censuses based on ethnicity. The CIA's World Factbook has estimated that around 79% of the population of Iran are a diverse Indo-European ethno-linguistic group that comprise speakers of various Iranian languages,[379] with Persians (including Mazenderanis and Gilaks) constituting 61% of the population, Kurds 10%, Lurs 6%, and Balochs 2%. Peoples of other ethno-linguistic groups make up the remaining 21%, with Azerbaijanis constituting 16%, Arabs 2%, Turkmens and other Turkic tribes 2%, and others (such as Armenians, Talysh, Georgians, Circassians, Assyrians) 1%.[3]
The Library of Congress issued slightly different estimates: 65% Persians (including Mazenderanis, Gilaks, and the Talysh), 16% Azerbaijanis, 7% Kurds, 6% Lurs, 2% Baloch, 1% Turkic tribal groups (incl. Qashqai and Turkmens), and non-Iranian, non-Turkic groups (incl. Armenians, Georgians, Assyrians, Circassians, and Arabs) less than 3%. It determined that Persian is the first language of at least 65% of the country's population, and is the second language for most of the remaining 35%.[380]
Other nongovernmental estimates regarding the groups other than Persians and Azerbaijanis are roughly congruent with the World Factbook and the Library of Congress. However, many estimates regarding the number of these two groups differ significantly from the mentioned census; some place the number of ethnic Azerbaijanis in Iran between 21.6 and 30% of the total population, with the majority holding it on 25%.c[381]d[382][383][384][385][386] In any case, the largest population of Azerbaijanis in the world live in Iran.
Religion
| Religion | Percent | Number |
| Muslim | 99.3989% (90–95% Shia) | 74,682,938 |
| Christian | 0.1566% | 117,704 |
| Zoroastrian | 0.0336% | 25,271 |
| Jewish | 0.0117% | 8,756 |
| Other | 0.0653% | 49,101 |
| Undeclared | 0.3538% | 205,317 |
Twelver Shia Islam is the official state religion, to which about 90% to 95%[388][389] of the population adhere. About 4% to 8% of the population are Sunni Muslims, mainly Kurds and Baloches. The remaining 2% are non-Muslim religious minorities, including Christians, Zoroastrians, Jews, Baháʼís, Mandeans, and Yarsanis.[3][390]
There are a large population of adherents of Yarsanism, a Kurdish indigenous religion, making it the largest (unrecognized) minority religion in Iran. Its followers are mainly Gorani Kurds and certain groups of Lurs. They are based in Kurdistan Province, Kermanshah Province and Lorestan mainly.
Christianity, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, and the Sunni branch of Islam are officially recognized by the government, and have reserved seats in the Iranian Parliament.[139] Historically, early Iranian religions such as the Proto-Iranic religion and the subsequent Zoroastrianism and Manichaeism were the dominant religions in Iran, particularly during the Median, Achaemenid, Parthian, and Sasanian eras. This changed after the fall of the Sasanian Empire by the centuries-long Islamization that followed the Muslim Conquest of Iran. Iran was predominantly Sunni until the conversion of the country (as well as the people of what is today the neighboring Republic of Azerbaijan) to Shia Islam by the order of the Safavid dynasty in the 16th century.[120]
Judaism has a long history in Iran, dating back to the Achaemenid conquest of Babylonia. Although many left in the wake of the establishment of the State of Israel and the 1979 Revolution, about 8,756[391] to 25,000[392] Jewish people live in Iran. Iran has the largest Jewish population in the Middle East outside of Israel.[393]
Around 250,000 to 370,000 Christians reside in Iran,[394][395] and Christianity is the country's largest recognized minority religion.[396] Most are of Armenian background, as well as a sizable minority of Assyrians.[397] A large number of Iranians have converted to Christianity from the predominant Shia Islam.[398][399][400][401]
The Baháʼí Faith is not officially recognized and has been subject to official persecution.[402] According to the United Nations Special Rapporteur on Human Rights in Iran, Baháʼís are the largest non-Muslim religious minority in Iran, with an estimated 350,000 adherents.[403] Since the 1979 Revolution, the persecution of Baháʼís has increased with executions and denial of civil rights, especially the denial of access to higher education and employment.[402][404][405]
Iranian officials have continued to support the rebuilding and renovation of Armenian churches in the Islamic Republic. The Armenian Monastic Ensembles of Iran has also received continued support. In 2019, the Iranian government registered the Holy Savior Cathedral, commonly referred to as Vank Cathedral, in the New Julfa district of Isfahan, as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, with significant expenditures for its congregation. Currently three Armenian churches in Iran have been included in the UNESCO World Heritage List.[406][407]
Culture
The earliest attested cultures in Iran date back to the Lower Paleolithic. Owing to its geopolitical position, Iran has influenced cultures as far as Greece and Italy to the west, Russia to the north, the Arabian Peninsula to the south, and south and east Asia to the east.
Art
The art of Iran encompasses many disciplines, including architecture, stonemasonry, metalworking, weaving, pottery, painting, and calligraphy. Iranian works of art show a great variety in style, in different regions and periods.[408] The art of the Medes remains obscure, but has been theoretically attributed to the Scythian style.[409] The Achaemenids borrowed heavily from the art of their neighboring civilizations,[410] but produced a synthesis of a unique style,[411] with an eclectic architecture remaining at sites such as Persepolis and Pasargadae. Greek iconography was imported by the Seleucids, followed by the recombination of Hellenistic and earlier Near Eastern elements in the art of the Parthians,[412] with remains such as the Temple of Anahita and the Statue of the Parthian Nobleman. By the time of the Sasanians, Iranian art came across a general renaissance.[413] Although of unclear development,[414] Sasanian art was highly influential, and spread into far regions. Taq-e-Bostan, Taq-e-Kasra, Naqsh-e-Rostam, and the Shapur-Khwast Castle are among the surviving monuments from the Sasanian period.
During the Middle Ages, Sasanian art played a prominent role in the formation of both European and Asian medieval art,[88] which carried forward to the Islamic world, and much of what later became known as Islamic learning—including medicine, architecture, philosophy, philology, and literature—were of Sasanian basis.[415][416][417][418]
The Safavid era is known as the Golden Age of Iranian art,[419] and Safavid works of art show a far more unitary development than in any other period,[420] as part of a political evolution that reunified Iran as a cultural entity.[420] Safavid art exerted noticeable influences upon the neighboring Ottomans, the Mughals, and the Deccans, and was also influential through its fashion and garden architecture on 11th–17th-century Europe.[420]
Iran's contemporary art traces its origins back to the time of Kamal-ol-Molk,[422] a prominent realist painter at the court of the Qajar dynasty who affected the norms of painting and adopted a naturalistic style that would compete with photographic works. A new Iranian school of fine art was established by Kamal-ol-Molk in 1928,[422] and was followed by the so-called "coffeehouse" style of painting.
Iran's avant-garde modernists emerged by the arrival of new western influences during World War II.[422] The vibrant contemporary art scene originates in the late 1940s, and Tehran's first modern art gallery, Apadana, was opened in September 1949 by painters Mahmud Javadipur, Hosein Kazemi, and Hushang Ajudani.[423][424] The new movements received official encouragement by mid-1950s,[422] which led to the emergence of artists such as Marcos Grigorian, signaling a commitment to the creation of a form of modern art grounded in Iran.[425]
Architecture
The history of architecture in Iran goes back to the seventh millennium BC.[426] Iranians were among the first to use mathematics, geometry and astronomy in architecture. Iranian architecture displays great variety, both structural and aesthetic, developing gradually and coherently out of earlier traditions and experience.[427] The guiding motif of Iranian architecture is its cosmic symbolism, "by which man is brought into communication and participation with the powers of heaven".[428]
Iran ranks seventh among UNESCO's list of countries with the most archaeological ruins and attractions from antiquity.[429]
Traditionally, the guiding formative motif of Iranian architecture has been its cosmic symbolism "by which man is brought into communication and participation with the powers of heaven".[430] This theme has not only given unity and continuity to the architecture of Persia, but has been a primary source of its emotional character as well.
According to Persian historian and archaeologist Arthur Pope, the supreme Iranian art, in the proper meaning of the word, has always been its architecture. The supremacy of architecture applies to both pre- and post-Islamic periods.[431]
Weaving
Iran's carpet-weaving has its origins in the Bronze Age, and is one of the most distinguished manifestations of Iranian art. Iran is the world's largest producer and exporter of handmade carpets, producing three-quarters of the world's total output and having a share of 30% of world's export markets.[432][433]
Literature
Iran's oldest literary tradition is that of Avestan, the Old Iranian sacred language of the Avesta, which consists of the legendary and religious texts of Zoroastrianism and the ancient Iranian religion, with its earliest records dating back to the pre-Achaemenid times.[434]
Of the various modern languages used in Iran, Persian, various dialects of which are spoken throughout the Iranian Plateau,[435][436] has the most influential literature. Persian has been dubbed as a worthy language to serve as a conduit for poetry, and is considered one of the four main bodies of world literature.[437] In spite of originating from the region of Persis (better known as Persia) in southwestern Iran, the Persian language was used and developed further through Persianate societies in Asia Minor, Central Asia, and South Asia, leaving massive influences on Ottoman and Mughal literatures, among others.
Iran has a number of famous medieval poets, most notably Rumi, Ferdowsi, Hafez, Saadi Shirazi, Omar Khayyam, and Nezami Ganjavi.[438] Iranian literature also inspired writers such as Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Henry David Thoreau, and Ralph Waldo Emerson.[105][106][107]
Philosophy
Iranian philosophy originates from Indo-European roots, with Zoroaster's reforms having major influences.
According to The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy, the chronology of the subject and science of philosophy starts with the Indo-Iranians, dating this event to 1500 BC. The Oxford dictionary also states, "Zarathushtra's philosophy entered to influence Western tradition through Judaism, and therefore on Middle Platonism."
While there are ancient relations between the Indian Vedas and the Iranian Avesta, the two main families of the Indo-Iranian philosophical traditions were characterized by fundamental differences, especially in their implications for the human being's position in society and their view of man's role in the universe.
The Cyrus Cylinder, which is known as "the first charter of human rights", is often seen as a reflection of the questions and thoughts expressed by Zoroaster, and developed in Zoroastrian schools of the Achaemenid era.[439][440] The earliest tenets of Zoroastrian schools are part of the extant scriptures of the Zoroastrian religion in Avestan. Among them are treatises such as the Zatspram, Shkand-gumanik Vizar, and Denkard, as well as older passages of the Avesta and the Gathas.[441]
Mythology
Iranian mythology consists of ancient Iranian folklore and stories, all involving extraordinary beings, reflecting attitudes towards the confrontation of good and evil, actions of the gods, and the exploits of heroes and fabulous creatures.
Myths play a crucial part in Iranian culture, and understanding of them is increased when they are considered within the context of actual events in Iranian history. The geography of Greater Iran, a vast area covering present-day Iran, the Caucasus, Anatolia, Mesopotamia and Central Asia, with its high mountain ranges, plays the main role in much of Iranian mythology.
Tenth-century Persian poet Ferdowsi's long epic poem Šāhnāme ("Book of Kings"), which is for the most part based on Xwadāynāmag, a Middle Persian compilation of the history of Iranian kings and heroes from mythical times down to the reign of Chosroes II,[442] is considered the national epic of Iran. It draws heavily on the stories and characters of the Zoroastrian tradition, from the texts of the Avesta, the Denkard, and the Bundahishn.
Music
Iran is the apparent birthplace of the earliest complex instruments, dating back to the third millennium BC.[443] The use of both vertical and horizontal angular harps have been documented at the sites Madaktu and Kul-e Farah, with the largest collection of Elamite instruments documented at Kul-e Farah. Multiple depictions of horizontal harps were also sculpted in Assyrian palaces, dating back between 865 and 650 BC.
Xenophon's Cyropaedia mentions a great number of singing women at the court of the Achaemenid Empire. Athenaeus of Naucratis, in his Deipnosophistae, points out to the capture of Achaemenid singing girls at the court of the last Achaemenid king Darius III (336–330 BC) by Macedonian general Parmenion. Under the Parthian Empire, the gōsān (Parthian for "minstrel") had a prominent role in the society.[444] According to Plutarch's Life of Crassus (32.3), they praised their national heroes and ridiculed their Roman rivals. Likewise, Strabo's Geographica reports that the Parthian youth were taught songs about "the deeds both of the gods and of the noblest men".[445]
The history of Sasanian music is better documented than the earlier periods, and is especially more evident in Avestan texts.[446] By the time of Chosroes II, the Sasanian royal court hosted a number of prominent musicians, namely Azad, Bamshad, Barbad, Nagisa, Ramtin, and Sarkash.
Iranian traditional musical instruments include string instruments such as chang (harp), qanun, santur, rud (oud, barbat), tar, dotar, setar, tanbur, and kamanche, wind instruments such as sorna (zurna, karna) and ney, and percussion instruments such as tompak, kus, daf (dayere), and naqare.
Iran's first symphony orchestra, the Tehran Symphony Orchestra, was founded by Qolam-Hoseyn Minbashian in 1933. It was reformed by Parviz Mahmoud in 1946, and is currently Iran's oldest and largest symphony orchestra. Later, by the late 1940s, Ruhollah Khaleqi founded the country's first national music society, and established the School of National Music in 1949.[447]
Iranian pop music has its origins in the Qajar era.[448] It was significantly developed since the 1950s, using indigenous instruments and forms accompanied by electric guitar and other imported characteristics. The emergence of genres such as rock in the 1960s and hip hop in the 2000s also resulted in major movements and influences in Iranian music.[449][450][451][452]
Theater
The earliest recorded representations of dancing figures within Iran were found in prehistoric sites such as Tepe Sialk and Tepe Mūsīān.[453] The oldest Iranian initiation of theater and the phenomena of acting can be traced in the ancient epic ceremonial theaters such as Sug-e Siāvuš ("mourning of Siāvaš"), as well as dances and theater narrations of Iranian mythological tales reported by Herodotus and Xenophon.
Iran's traditional theatrical genres include Baqqāl-bāzi ("grocer play", a form of slapstick comedy), Ruhowzi (or Taxt-howzi, comedy performed over a courtyard pool covered with boards), Siāh-bāzi (in which the central comedian appears in blackface), Sāye-bāzi (shadow play), Xeyme-šab-bāzi (marionette), and Arusak-bāzi (puppetry), and Ta'zie (religious tragedy plays).[454]
Before the 1979 Revolution, the Iranian national stage had become a famous performing scene for known international artists and troupes,[455] with the Roudaki Hall of Tehran constructed to function as the national stage for opera and ballet. Opened on 26 October 1967, the hall is home to the Tehran Symphony Orchestra, the Tehran Opera Orchestra, and the Iranian National Ballet Company, and was officially renamed Vahdat Hall after the 1979 Revolution.
Loris Tjeknavorian's Rostam and Sohrab, based on the tragedy of Rostam and Sohrab from Ferdowsi's epic poem Šāhnāme, is an example of opera with Persian libretto. Tjeknavorian, a celebrated Iranian Armenian composer and conductor, composed it in 25 years, and it was finally performed for the first time at Tehran's Roudaki Hall, with Darya Dadvar in the role of Tahmina.
Cinema and animation
A third-millennium BC earthen goblet discovered at the Burnt City, a Bronze Age urban settlement in southeastern Iran, depicts what could possibly be the world's oldest example of animation. The artifact, associated with Jiroft, bears five sequential images depicting a wild goat jumping up to eat the leaves of a tree.[457][458] The earliest attested Iranian examples of visual representations, however, are traced back to the bas-reliefs of Persepolis, the ritual center of the Achaemenid Empire. The figures at Persepolis remain bound by the rules of grammar and syntax of visual language.[459] The Iranian visual arts reached a pinnacle by the Sasanian era, and several works from this period have been found to articulate movements and actions in a highly sophisticated manner. It is even possible to see a progenitor of the cinematic close-up shot in one of these works of art, which shows a wounded wild pig escaping from the hunting ground.[460]
By the early 20th century, the five-year-old industry of cinema came to Iran. The first Iranian filmmaker was probably Mirza Ebrahim (Akkas Bashi), the court photographer of Mozaffar-ed-Din Shah of the Qajar dynasty. Mirza Ebrahim obtained a camera and filmed the Qajar ruler's visit to Europe. Later in 1904, Mirza Ebrahim (Sahhaf Bashi), a businessman, opened the first public movie theater in Tehran.[461] After him, several others like Russi Khan, Ardeshir Khan, and Ali Vakili tried to establish new movie theaters in Tehran. Until the early 1930s, there were around 15 cinema theaters in Tehran and 11 in other provinces.[460] The first Iranian feature film, Abi and Rabi, was a silent comedy directed by Ovanes Ohanian in 1930. The first sounded one, Lor Girl, was produced by Ardeshir Irani and Abd-ol-Hosein Sepanta in 1932.
Iran's animation industry began by the 1950s, and was followed by the establishment of the influential Institute for the Intellectual Development of Children and Young Adults in January 1965.[462][463] The 1960s was a significant decade for Iranian cinema, with 25 commercial films produced annually on average throughout the early 60s, increasing to 65 by the end of the decade. The majority of the production focused on melodrama and thrillers. With the screening of the films Qeysar and The Cow, directed by Masoud Kimiai and Dariush Mehrjui respectively in 1969, alternative films set out to establish their status in the film industry and Bahram Beyzai's Downpour and Nasser Taghvai's Tranquility in the Presence of Others followed soon. Attempts to organize a film festival, which had begun in 1954 within the framework of the Golrizan Festival, resulted in the festival of Sepas in 1969. The endeavors also resulted in the formation of the Tehran's World Film Festival in 1973.[464]
After the Revolution of 1979, and following the Cultural Revolution, a new age emerged in Iranian cinema, starting with Long Live! by Khosrow Sinai and followed by many other directors, such as Abbas Kiarostami and Jafar Panahi. Kiarostami, an acclaimed Iranian director, planted Iran firmly on the map of world cinema when he won the Palme d'Or for Taste of Cherry in 1997.[465] The continuous presence of Iranian films in prestigious international festivals, such as the Cannes Film Festival, the Venice Film Festival, and the Berlin International Film Festival, attracted world attention to Iranian masterpieces.[466] In 2006, six Iranian films, of six different styles, represented Iranian cinema at the Berlin International Film Festival. Critics considered this a remarkable event in the history of Iranian cinema.[467][468]
Asghar Farhadi, a well-known Iranian director, has received a Golden Globe Award and two Academy Awards, representing Iran for Best Foreign Language Film in 2012 and 2017. In 2012, he was named as one of the 100 Most Influential People in the world by the American news magazine Time.
Observances
Iran's official New Year begins with Nowruz, an ancient Iranian tradition celebrated annually on the vernal equinox. It is enjoyed by people adhering to different religions, but is considered a holiday for the Zoroastrians. It was registered on the UNESCO's list of Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity in 2009,[469] described as the Persian New Year,[470][471][472][473] shared with a number of other countries in which it has historically been celebrated.
On the eve of the last Wednesday of the preceding year, as a prelude to Nowruz, the ancient festival of Čāršanbe Suri celebrates Ātar ("fire") by performing rituals such as jumping over bonfires and lighting off firecrackers and fireworks.[474][475] The Nowruz celebrations last by the end of the 13th day of the Iranian year (Farvardin 13, usually coincided with 1 or 2 April), celebrating the festival of Sizdebedar, during which the people traditionally go outdoors to picnic.[citation needed]
Yaldā, another nationally celebrated ancient tradition,[476] commemorates the ancient goddess Mithra and marks the longest night of the year on the eve of the winter solstice (čelle ye zemestān; usually falling on 20 or 21 December),[477][478] during which families gather together to recite poetry and eat fruits—particularly the red fruits watermelon and pomegranate, as well as mixed nuts.[479][480] In some regions of the provinces of Mazanderan and Markazi,[481][482][483][484] there is also the midsummer festival of Tirgān,[485] which is observed on Tir 13 (2 or 3 July) as a celebration of water.[486][487]
Alongside the ancient Iranian celebrations, Islamic annual events such as Ramezān, Eid e Fetr, and Ruz e Āšurā are marked by the country's large Muslim population, Christian traditions such as Noel,[488] Čelle ye Ruze, and Eid e Pāk[489] are observed by the Christian communities, Jewish traditions such as Purim,[490] Hanukā,[491] and Eid e Fatir (Pesah)[492][493] are observed by the Jewish communities, and Zoroastrian traditions such as Sade[494] and Mehrgān are observed by the Zoroastrians.
Public holidays
Iran's official calendar is the Solar Hejri calendar, beginning at the vernal equinox in the Northern Hemisphere, which was first enacted by the Iranian Parliament on 31 March 1925.[495] Each of the 12 months of the Solar Hejri calendar correspond with a zodiac sign, and the length of each year is absolutely solar.[495] The months are named after the ancient Iranian months,[495] namely Farvardin (Fravaši), Ordibehešt (Aša Vahišta), Xordād (Haurvatāt), Tir (Tištrya), Amordād (Amərətāt), Šahrivar (Xšaθra Vairya), Mehr (Miθra), Ābān (Āpō), Āzar (Ātar), Dey (Daθuš), Bahman (Vohu Manah), and Esfand (Spəntā Ārmaiti).
Alternatively, the Lunar Hejri calendar is used to indicate Islamic events, and the Gregorian calendar remarks the international events.
Legal public holidays based on the Iranian solar calendar include the cultural celebrations of Nowruz (Farvardin 1–4; 21–24 March) and Sizdebedar (Farvardin 13; 2 April), and the political events of Islamic Republic Day (Farvardin 12; 1 April), the death of Ruhollah Khomeini (Khordad 14; 4 June), the Khordad 15 event (Khordad 15; 5 June), the anniversary of the 1979 Revolution (Bahman 22; 10 February), and Oil Nationalization Day (Esfand 29; 19 March).[496]
Lunar Islamic public holidays include Tasua (Muharram 9; 30 September), Ashura (Muharram 10; 1 October), Arba'een (Safar 20; 10 November), the death of Muhammad (Safar 28; 17 November), the death of Ali al-Ridha (Safar 29 or 30; 18 November), the birthday of Muhammad (Rabi-al-Awwal 17; 6 December), the death of Fatimah (Jumada-al-Thani 3; 2 March), the birthday of Ali (Rajab 13; 10 April), Muhammad's first revelation (Rajab 27; 24 April), the birthday of Muhammad al-Mahdi (Sha'ban 15; 12 May), the death of Ali (Ramadan 21; 16 June), Eid al-Fitr (Shawwal 1–2; 26–27 June), the death of Ja'far al-Sadiq (Shawwal 25; 20 July), Eid al-Qurban (Zulhijja 10; 1 September), and Eid al-Qadir (Zulhijja 18; 9 September).[496]
Cuisine
Due to its variety of ethnic groups and the influences from the neighboring cultures, the cuisine of Iran is diverse. Herbs are frequently used, along with fruits such as plums, pomegranate, quince, prunes, apricots, and raisins. To achieve a balanced taste, characteristic flavorings such as saffron, dried lime, cinnamon, and parsley are mixed delicately and used in some special dishes. Onion and garlic are commonly used in the preparation of the accompanying course, but are also served separately during meals, either in raw or pickled form.
Iranian cuisine includes a wide range of main dishes, including various types of kebab, pilaf, stew (khoresh), soup and āsh, and omelette. Lunch and dinner meals are commonly accompanied by side dishes such as plain yogurt or mast-o-khiar, sabzi, salad Shirazi, and torshi, and might follow dishes such as borani, Mirza Qasemi, or kashk e bademjan as the appetizer.
In Iranian culture, tea (čāy) is widely consumed.[500][501] Iran is the world's seventh major tea producer,[502] and a cup of tea is typically the first thing offered to a guest.[503] One of Iran's most popular desserts is the falude,[504] consisting of vermicelli in a rose water syrup, which has its roots in the fourth century BC.[505][506] There is also the popular saffron ice cream, known as bastani sonnati ("traditional ice cream"),[507] which is sometimes accompanied with carrot juice.[508] Iran is also famous for its caviar.[509]
Sports
Iran is most likely the birthplace of polo,[510][511] locally known as čowgān, with its earliest records attributed to the ancient Medes.[512] Freestyle wrestling is traditionally considered the national sport of Iran, and the national wrestlers have been world champions on many occasions. Iran's traditional wrestling, called košti e pahlevāni ("heroic wrestling"), is registered on UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage list.
Being a mountainous country, Iran is a venue for skiing, snowboarding, hiking, rock climbing,[513] and mountain climbing.[514][515] It is home to several ski resorts, the most famous being Tochal, Dizin, and Shemshak, all within one to three hours traveling from the capital city Tehran.[516] The resort of Tochal, located in the Alborz mountain rage, is the world's fifth-highest ski resort (3,730 m or 12,238 ft at its highest station).
Iran's National Olympic Committee was founded in 1947. Wrestlers and weightlifters have achieved the country's highest records at the Olympics. In September 1974, Iran became the first country in West Asia to host the Asian Games. The Azadi Sport Complex, which is the largest sport complex in Iran, was originally built for this occasion.
Football has been regarded as the most popular sport in Iran, with the men's national team having won the Asian Cup on three occasions. The men's national team has maintained its position as Asia's best team, ranking 1st in Asia and 33rd in the world according to the FIFA World Rankings (as of May 2020[update]).[517]
Volleyball is the second most popular sport in Iran.[518][519] Having won the 2011 and 2013 Asian Men's Volleyball Championships, the men's national team is currently the strongest team in Asia, and ranks eighth in the FIVB World Rankings (as of July 2017[update]).
Basketball is also popular,[520] with the men's national team having won three Asian Championships since 2007.
In 2016, Iran made global headlines for international female champions boycotting tournaments in Iran in chess (U.S. Woman Grandmaster Nazí Paikidze)[521][522] and in shooting (Indian world champion Heena Sidhu),[523] as they refused to enter a country where they would be forced to wear a hijab.
Media
Iran is one of the countries with the worst freedom of the press situation, ranking 164th out of 180 countries on the Press Freedom Index (as of 2018).[524] The Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance is Iran's main government department responsible for the cultural policy, including activities regarding communications and information.[525]
Iran's first newspapers were published during the reign of Naser al-Din Shah of the Qajar dynasty in the mid-19th century.[526] Most of the newspapers published in Iran are in Persian, the country's official language. The country's most widely circulated periodicals are based in Tehran, among which are Etemad, Ettela'at, Kayhan, Hamshahri, Resalat, and Shargh.[317] Tehran Times, Iran Daily, and Financial Tribune are among English-language newspapers based in Iran.
Television was introduced in Iran in 1958.[527] Although the 1974 Asian Games were broadcast in color, full color programming began in 1978.[527] Since the 1979 Revolution, Iran's largest media corporation is the Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting (IRIB).[317] Despite the restrictions on non-domestic television, about 65% of the residents of the capital city and about 30 to 40% of the residents outside the capital city access worldwide television channels through satellite dishes, although observers state that the figures are likely to be higher.[528][529]
Iran received access to the Internet in 1993. According to Internet World Stats, as of 2017[update], around 69.1% of the population of Iran are Internet users.[530] Iran ranks 17th among countries by number of Internet users. According to the statistics provided by the web information company of Alexa, Google Search is Iran's most widely used search engine and Instagram is the most popular online social networking service.[531] Direct access to many worldwide mainstream websites has been blocked in Iran, including Facebook, which has been blocked since 2009 due to the organization of anti-governmental protests on the website.[532] However, as of 2017[update], Facebook has around 40 million subscribers based in Iran (48.8% of the population) who use virtual private networks and proxy servers to access the website.[530] Some of the officials themselves have verified accounts on the social networking websites that are blocked by the authorities, including Facebook and Twitter.[533] About 90% of Iran's e-commerce takes place on the Iranian online store of Digikala, which has around 750,000 visitors per day and more than 2.3 million subscribers and is the most visited online store in the Middle East.[534][531]
Fashion and clothing
Fashion in Iran is divided into several historical periods. The exact date of the emergence of weaving in Iran is not yet known, but it is likely to coincide with the emergence of civilization. Clothing in Iran is mentioned in Persian mythology. Ferdowsi and many historians have considered Keyumars to be the inventor of the use of animals' skin and hair as clothing. Some historians have also mentioned Hushang as the first inventor of the use of living skins as clothing.[535] Ferdowsi considers Tahmuras to be a kind of textile initiator in Iran. There are historical discoveries in northern Iran from about 6,000 BC that refer to wool weaving at the time. Other discoveries in central Iran dating back to 4200 BC have shown that the animals' skin has not been the only clothing worn on the Iranian Plateau since those years. The clothing of ancient Iran took an advanced form, and the fabric and color of clothing became very important at that time. Depending on the social status, eminence, climate of the region and the season, Persian clothing during the Achaemenian period took various forms. The philosophy used in this clothing, in addition to being functional, also had an aesthetic role.[535]
Beauty pageant festivals inside Iran were not held after the 1979 revolution, and the last selection ceremony of the "beauty queen of Iran" was held in 1978 in this country. Since then, a high number of Iranian girls participated in the Beauty pageant and Miss Universe outside of Iran. Sahar Biniaz (Miss Universe Canada 2012) and Shermineh Shahrivar (Miss Germany and Miss Europe) are examples of Iranian models outside Iran.[536][537] Girls of Enghelab Street was a series of protests in 2017–2019 against a compulsory hijab in Iran.[538]
See also
- List of Iran-related topics
- Outline of Iran
- Name of Iran
Notes
- ^ Including the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic
- ^ In the Avesta, the airiia- are members of the ethnic group of the Avesta-reciters themselves, in contradistinction to the anairiia- (the "non-Arya"). The word also appears four times in Old Persian: One is in the Behistun inscription, where ariya- is the name of a language (DB 4.89). The other three instances occur in Darius I's inscription at Naqsh-e Rustam (DNa 14–15), in Darius I's inscription at Susa (DSe 13–14), and in the inscription of Xerxes I at Persepolis (XPh 12–13). In these, the two Achaemenid dynasties describe themselves as pārsa pārsahyā puça ariya ariyaciça "a Persian, son of a Persian, an Ariya, of Ariya origin."—The phrase with ciça ("origin, descendance") assures that ariya is an ethnic name wider in meaning than pārsa and not a simple adjectival epithet.[36]
References
- ^ Jeroen Temperman (2010). State-Religion Relationships and Human Rights Law: Towards a Right to Religiously Neutral Governance. Brill. pp. 87–. ISBN 978-90-04-18148-9.
The official motto of Iran is Takbir ('God is the Greatest' or 'God is Great'). Transliteration Allahu Akbar. As referred to in art. 18 of the constitution of Iran (1979). The de facto motto however is: 'Independence, freedom, the Islamic Republic.'
- ^ "Iran - Languages". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 9 January 2020.
- ^ a b c d e f g h "Iran". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency (United States). Retrieved 24 May 2018.
- ^ a b Sarkhosh Curtis, Vesta; Stewart, Sarah (2005), Birth of the Persian Empire: The Idea of Iran, London: I.B. Tauris, p. 108, ISBN 978-1-84511-062-8,
Similarly the collapse of Sassanian Eranshahr in AD 650 did not end Iranians' national idea. The name 'Iran' disappeared from official records of the Saffarids, Samanids, Buyids, Saljuqs and their successor. But one unofficially used the name Iran, Eranshahr, and similar national designations, particularly Mamalek-e Iran or 'Iranian lands', which exactly translated the old Avestan term Ariyanam Daihunam. On the other hand, when the Safavids (not Reza Shah, as is popularly assumed) revived a national state officially known as Iran, bureaucratic usage in the Ottoman empire and even Iran itself could still refer to it by other descriptive and traditional appellations.
- ^ a b Andrew J. Newman (2006). Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-1-86064-667-6. Retrieved 21 June 2013.
- ^ "Surface water and surface water change". Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). Retrieved 11 October 2020.
- ^ "دادهها و اطلاعات آماری". www.amar.org.ir. Archived from the original on 14 March 2018. Retrieved 13 September 2017.
- ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2020". IMF.org. International Monetary Fund. Retrieved 4 January 2020.
- ^ "GINI index (World Bank estimate)". Data.worldbank.org. Archived from the original on 9 February 2015. Retrieved 29 November 2015.
- ^ Human Development Report 2020 The Next Frontier: Human Development and the Anthropocene (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 15 December 2020. pp. 343–346. ISBN 978-92-1-126442-5. Retrieved 16 December 2020.
- ^ a b A. Fishman, Joshua (2010). Handbook of Language and Ethnic Identity: Disciplinary and Regional Perspectives (Volume 1). Oxford University Press. p. 266. ISBN 978-0-19-537492-6.
" "Iran" and "Persia" are synonymous" The former has always been used by the Iranian speaking peoples themselves, while the latter has served as the international name of the country in various languages
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- Shaffer, Brenda (2003). Borders and Brethren: Iran and the Challenge of Azerbaijani Identity. MIT Press. pp. 221–225. ISBN 0-262-19477-5 "There is considerable lack of consensus regarding the number of Azerbaijanis in Iran ... Most conventional estimates of the Azerbaijani population range between one-fifth to one-third of the general population of Iran, the majority claiming one-fourth." – "Azerbaijani student groups in Iran claim that there are 27 million Azerbaijanis residing in Iran."
- Minahan, James (2002). Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: S-Z. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 1765. ISBN 978-0-313-32384-3 "Approximately (2002e) 18,500,000 Southern Azeris in Iran, concentrated in the northwestern provinces of East and West Azerbaijan. It is difficult to determine the exact number of Southern Azeris in Iran, as official statistics are not published detailing Iran's ethnic structure. Estimates of the Southern Azeri population range from as low as 12 million up to 40% of the population of Iran – that is, nearly 27 million ..."
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Bibliography
- Axworthy, Michael (2008). A History of Iran: Empire of the Mind. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-09876-7.
- Foltz, Richard (2016). Iran in World History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-933550-3.
- Iran: A Country Study. 2008, Washington, DC: Library of Congress, 354 pp.
- Mikaberidze, Alexander (2011). Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia. 1. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1-59884-336-1.
- Fisher, William Bayne; Avery, P.; Hambly, G.R.G; Melville, C. (1991). The Cambridge History of Iran. 7. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-20095-0.
- Roisman, Joseph; Worthington, Ian (2011). A Companion to Ancient Macedonia. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 978-1-4443-5163-7.
External links
Definitions from Wiktionary- Media from Wikimedia Commons
- News from Wikinews
- Quotations from Wikiquote
- Texts from Wikisource
- Travel guide from Wikivoyage
- Resources from Wikiversity
- The e-office of the Supreme Leader of Iran
- The President of Iran
- Iran.ir
- Iran. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
- Iran web resources provided by GovPubs at the University of Colorado Boulder Libraries
- Iran at Curlie
- Wikimedia Atlas of Iran
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